Organizational Behavior Final

Surface-level diversity

Visible, observable differences among people such as race, gender, age, or physical appearance

Deep-level diversity

Differences in values, beliefs, personalities, and attitudes that are not immediately visible

Inclusion

The degree to which employees feel welcomed, valued, and able to fully participate in the organization — goes beyond just representation

Diversity vs. Inclusion

Diversity is about who is present; inclusion is about whether those people can actually contribute and belong

Implicit bias

Unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that affect decisions and behavior without conscious awareness

Why diversity doesn't automatically improve outcomes

Without inclusion, diverse members may not feel safe contributing unique perspectives, so the potential benefit is never realized

Team effectiveness criteria

A team is effective when it meets performance goals, members are satisfied and able to continue working together, and the team grows in capability over time

Stages of team development

Forming → Storming → Norming → Performing (Adjourning for temporary teams); teams must work through conflict before becoming truly effective

Task conflict

Disagreement about work content, goals, or methods — can improve decision quality when managed well

Relationship conflict

Interpersonal tension or personal friction — almost always harmful to team functioning and morale

Advocacy vs. Inquiry

Advocacy = pushing your own position; Inquiry = asking questions to understand others' views. Effective teams balance both.

Common knowledge effect

Groups spend more time discussing information everyone already knows and less time on unique information held by only one member, leading to worse decisions

Groupthink

When a group prioritizes harmony and consensus over critical thinking, leading to poor unchallenged decisions

Social loafing

The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone

Bases of power

Legitimate (role/position), Reward (ability to give rewards), Coercive (ability to punish), Expert (knowledge/skill), Referent (admiration/identification)

Persuasion / influence tactics

Strategies used to change others' attitudes or behaviors, such as rational persuasion, coalition building, ingratiation, or inspirational appeals

BATNA (Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement)

Your best option if negotiations fail; determines your walkaway point

Reservation price / Resistance point

The absolute worst outcome you will accept before walking away from a negotiation

Aspiration / Target price

Your ideal, optimistic goal in a negotiation — what you shoot for, not just what you'll settle for

ZOPA (Zone of Possible Agreement)

The range between each party's reservation price where a deal can be made

Distributive negotiation

A fixed-pie, win-lose approach where one party's gain is the other's loss (e.g., haggling over a single price)

Integrative negotiation

A collaborative approach that seeks to expand value by trading across multiple issues based on differing priorities

Anchoring

Setting the first offer to influence the negotiation range — first numbers tend to pull the final outcome toward them

Positions vs. interests

Positions are what parties say they want; interests are the underlying needs or reasons behind those demands. Integrative deals are built on interests.

Value creation vs. value claiming

Creating value = expanding what's available for both parties; claiming value = competing for a larger share of what exists

Package offers / tradeoffs

Offering multiple issues together rather than one at a time, allowing parties to trade on priorities and create mutual gain

Organizational culture

Shared assumptions, values, and beliefs that shape how members think and behave within an organization

Artifacts

Visible, surface-level elements of culture: office layout, dress code, rituals, language, stories

Espoused values

The stated principles and beliefs an organization officially promotes (e.g., mission statements)

Underlying assumptions

Deep, taken-for-granted beliefs that are rarely questioned and drive actual behavior — the core of culture

Culture as constraint

Culture can limit change or flexibility because deeply held assumptions are hard to challenge or shift

Centralization vs. decentralization

Centralized = decisions made at the top; Decentralized = decision-making authority pushed down to lower levels

Formalization

The degree to which rules, procedures, and job descriptions are written and standardized

Flat vs. tall hierarchy

Flat = few levels, wider span of control, faster communication; Tall = many levels, narrower span, more oversight

Departmentalization

How an organization groups jobs — by function, product, geography, customer, or some matrix combination

Trait approach to leadership

Leadership based on innate personal qualities (e.g., intelligence, drive, confidence) — focuses on who the leader is

Behavioral approach to leadership

Leadership based on what leaders actually do — task-oriented behaviors vs. people-oriented behaviors

Contingency approach to leadership

Effective leadership depends on the situation — no single style is always best; leaders must adapt to context

Leader emergence vs. leader effectiveness

Emergence = who is perceived as or steps into a leadership role; Effectiveness = who actually produces good outcomes. They are not always the same person.

Task-oriented vs. people-oriented leadership

Task-oriented focuses on goals, structure, and performance; people-oriented focuses on relationships, morale, and support

Big Five and leadership (OCEAN)

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism. High extraversion and conscientiousness are often linked to leader emergence, but trait presence ≠ leader effectiveness.

Forces for change

Internal or external pressures that push an organization to change (e.g., technology, competition, regulation, workforce shifts)

Resistance to change

Opposition or reluctance from individuals or groups — stems from fear, habit, loss of status, mistrust, or unclear benefits

Resistance continuum

Resistance ranges from active opposition to passive non-compliance to quiet skepticism — not all resistance looks the same

Lewin's three-stage model

Unfreeze (disrupt the status quo) → Change (implement the new state) → Refreeze (stabilize and reinforce the new normal)

Emotional vs. rational pathways in change

Rational = make the logical case for change; Emotional = connect change to values, identity, and feelings. Both are needed.

Shareholder vs. stakeholder thinking

Shareholder view = maximize returns for owners; Stakeholder view = consider the interests of all affected parties (employees, community, customers, etc.)

CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility)

A company's commitment to operating in socially and environmentally responsible ways beyond legal requirements

"Washing" (greenwashing, etc.)

When a company's public claims about social or environmental responsibility are not matched by actual practices

Creativity defined

An idea or output that is both novel (new, original) and useful (serves a purpose or solves a problem) — both conditions required

Brainstorming vs. brainwriting

Brainstorming = verbal group idea generation; Brainwriting = written, individual-first idea generation that reduces social pressure and dominance effects

Why change implementation fails

Poor communication, lack of credibility, ignoring stakeholder concerns, insufficient support, or moving too fast without building buy-in