BJU Bio 407: Animal Behavior -- Midterm Exam Review

1. What are the mechanisms that cause it? 

2. How does it develop? 

3. What is the survival value? 

4. How did it evolve? (microevolution in a population or between populations) 

What are the four questions that Niko Tinbergen identifies as important questions that should be addressed in the field of animal behavior.  

1. Fix Action Pattern: a sequence of unlearned, species typical, acts/behaviors directly linked to a simple stimulus (ex: colors, light/dark, sound) 

2. Modal Action Pattern: a sequence of acts/behaviors linked to simple stimuli, but has plasticity (has some flexibility/variation in the resulting behavior) 

What is a FAP? How is this different from a MAP?

1. The degree to which two or more observers record the same behavior consistently. 

2. Reliability = (Agreements)/(Agreements + Disagreements) x 100 

What is interobserver reliability and give a way to calculate this? 

1. Treating non-independent data points as independent (inflates sample size falsely). 

2. Sometimes acceptable: when true replication is impossible (e.g., rare animals), but must be acknowledged.

What is pseudoreplication and when is it maybe ok to use? 

1. Null (H₀): No effect or no difference.  

2. Alternative (H₁): There is an effect or difference.

Difference between a null and alternative hypothesis?

1. Independent: what you manipulate  

2. Dependent: what you measure  

3. Control: baseline for comparison (receives treatment that is known to either produce negative or positive result) 

4. Experimental group: receives treatment 

What is the experimental, control, dependent, and independent variables? 

1. Ad libitum

2. One-zero sampling

3. Group scan sampling

4. Focal-instantaneous sampling

5. All occurrence (focal-continuous) sampling

What are the 5 ways we collect behavioral data?

way to collect behavioral data; records anything noticeable. The observer makes notes of all behaviors without referring to any one specific behavior nor without regard to time intervals or the like. Usually used in pilot studies or for developing an ethogram. 

What is ad libitum sampling?

way to collect behavioral data; records whether behavior occurred or not on a fixed time interval. The number 1 is used for a positive score, and 0 for a negative. 

What is one-zero sampling?

way to collect behavioral data; observing a group of individuals for a specified time at specified intervals and recording all instances of behavior. Looks specifically at behaviors in a social setting.

What is group scan sampling?

way to collect behavioral data; observing 1 individual for a specified time at specified intervals and recording all instances of its behavior – usually for several different categories of behaviors. 

What is focal-instantaneous sampling?

way to collect behavioral data; records every instance of a behavior without sample intervals. Aims to provide an exact and faithful record of the behavior measuring time frequences and durations and the times at which the behavior patterns stopped/started. 

What is all occurrence sampling?

evolution occurs at the population level and that it primarily consists of a disruption of allelic frequencies, whether by natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow or the like. 

What is significant about microevolution? 

1. that each population has genetic variation 

2. the variation is heritable 

3. that there is generally a differential expression of survival and reproductive success between individuals in a population. 

What are the three necessary and sufficient conditions required for natural selection to work  

• Dendrite: branches of nerve receptors that receive singles. Are what pick up information about things like temperature or texture.

• Soma: the nerve cell body; helps integrate information

• Axon: sends signals in nerve cells containing synaptic processes at the end.

• Collateral branches: branch signals to other neurons.

• Nodes of Ranvier: the gaps in between schwan cells which function in depolarization.

Know the different parts of the neuron (dendrite, soma, axon and then the collaterals that branch off of the axon) and their function.  

Internal or external

Sensory receptors/neurons can pick up sensory information from what kind of environment?

Skeletal muscles to contract and produce a behavior. 

Motor neurons send impulses to what? What is produced?

Sympathetic (fight/flight): ↑ heart rate, ↑ blood pressure

• Has a sympathetic activation where everything goes off at once.

• Ex:

  • Dilates pupil

  • Inhibits flow of saliva

  • Acceleration of heartbeat

  • Dilates bronchi

  • Inhibits peristalsis and secretion

  • Conversion of glycogen to glucose

  • Secretion of adrenaline and noradren

  • Inhibits bladder contraction

Parasympathetic (rest/digest): ↓ heart rate, digestion increases

• Typically acts as a stair-step approach where actions go off one-at-a-time or in response to a previous action.

• Ex:

  • Stimulates flow of saliva

  • Slows heartbeat

  • Constricts bronchi

  • Stimulates peristalsis and secretion (stomach and intestine)

  • Stimulates release of bile

  • Contacts bladder

Know the difference between the sympathetic (fight or flight) vs. parasympathetic (rest and digest) nervous system and give some physiological responses that occur in each (e.g. blood pressure increases when the sympathetic nervous system is activated).

The main thing is during an action potential the Na gated channel proteins open up which allows a huge influx of Na ions to move with their concentration gradient, from high concentration outside the cell to low concentration inside the cell.  This immediately depolarizes the cell or in other words we move the resting potential of -70 mV to +30 mV because Na is a cation and has a positive charge, we have a slightly positive charge at the point of the membrane.  Because of the refractory period, the charge can only move in the direction of dendrite, to soma, to axon, to the target receptor

Resting Potential (Polarized Cell) 

1. The neuron is at about -70 mV (inside is negative compared to outside). This is called a polarized state.  

How it’s maintained: 

1. Na⁺/K⁺ pump: Pumps 3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ in (uses ATP)  

2. Ungated (leak) channels: K⁺ leaks out more than Na⁺ leaks in  

3. Result: inside stays more negative  

3. Key idea: 
   There is a concentration gradient: Na⁺ = high outside; K⁺ = high inside  

Getting to Threshold Potential (~ -55 mV) 

4. A stimulus (touch, light, chemical, etc.) activates receptors. This causes Na⁺ gated channels to open slightly. Na⁺ starts entering → membrane becomes less negative (depolarization begins)  

5. If enough Na⁺ enters: The neuron reaches threshold (~ -55 mV)  

6. Important rule: All-or-none principle → if threshold is reached, an action potential WILL happen  

Action Potential (Depolarization) 

7. At threshold: Voltage-gated Na⁺ channels open fully. Massive Na⁺ influx (moves down its concentration gradient)  

8. Result: 

   1. Membrane potential rises from -70 mV → +30 mV  

   2. Cell becomes depolarized (positive inside)  

Repolarization 

9. Na⁺ channels close; K⁺ gated channels open; K⁺ flows out of the cell  

10. Result: Membrane returns toward negative  

Hyperpolarization 

11. K⁺ leaves a bit too much; Membrane dips below resting (e.g., -80 mV)  

Return to Resting 

12. Na⁺/K⁺ pump restores balance -- Back to -70 mV  

Refractory Period 

13. Neuron cannot fire again immediately  

14. Ensures signal moves one direction only: dendrite → soma → axon → terminal  

Synapse & Acetylcholine

15. Synapse = gap between neurons  

16. Electrical signal becomes chemical: Vesicles release acetylcholine (ACh); ACh binds receptors on next neuron; Opens Na⁺ channels → new action potential begins. 

Polarized = resting (-70 mV)  

Depolarized = action potential (+30 mV) 

Know what occurs during the resting potential (how is this maintained), threshold potential (what occurs to get to this point and what happens once you reach the threshold potential) and the action potential. (LOOK AT PICTURE IN NOTES)

Feature detectors

Know what kinds of neurons respond only to stimuli with particular characteristics.

• LTP: thought to be produced when two connected neurons are simultaneously activated in such a way as to strengthen the synapse; strengthening of synapses → learning/memory

• Activational effects: occur when hormone secretion or inhibition of secretion leads to a relatively rapid response; hormones temporarily activate behavior

Know what long-term potentiation and activational effects are.  

Proximate questions: causation which addresses “how” a behavior occurs or is modified. Looks at the mechanism

Ultimate questions: causation which addresses the “why” a behavior occurs. Looks at the evolutionary purpose.

Know the difference between proximate and ultimate questions. 

A list of behaviors and what they are/look like of a species. 

What is an ethogram? 

The way one percevies the world. Can lead to anthropomorphism: applying human emotions/tendences to nonhumans.

Has to assume that the moment a stimulus is given is the same time it was received and perceived.

What is an umwelt? 

Sign stimulus: a trigger by an external cue which causes a FAP to occur. 

What is a sign stimulus?

1. Sign stimulus 

2. Species-typical behavior (FAP or MAP) 

The name of a stimulus that triggers a behavior and the name of the behavior that is emitted by a member of the same species (species typical behavior). 

• Chemical synapses: use a neurotransmitter to communicate. Requires a transmitter (Acetyl Cholrae (ACH)) and receptor (ACH recpetor)

• Electrical synapses: currents generated by an action potential are strong enough to depolarize an adjacent neuron above the threshold. Very fast and has no chemical intermediary.

What are the different types of synapses used in animals and what is the function and difference between them.  

Neuroglial cells: support neurons

Schwann cell: the cells on the axon that are wrapped in the layers of fat. They produce myelin.

What are neuroglial cells and know specifically what a Schwann cell is and where it’s found.   

• Contain central-filtering process which sorts out incoming stimuli. Neural system that triggers FAP when sign stimulus is detected.

• When they are replicated and trigger a FAP = Code Breaking using a supernormal stimulus

Know what an innate releasing mechanism is and what it will trigger. 

1. Cornea → aqueous humor → pupil → lens → vitreous humor → retina (fovea) 

2. cornea, anterior chamber of the anterior cavity that contains aqueous humor, then thru the pupil that is surrounded by the iris, then into the posterior cavity between the iris and pupil, then the pupil and lastly the posterior cavity containing vitreous humor and then to the fovea which is a focal point of the retina where you find a concentration of rods and cones 

When looking at the vertebrate eye, be able to trace a photon of light as it hits the cornea until it lands on the fovea of the retina. 

Gustatory 

Type of chemoreceptor that helps animals discern taste and to discriminate between foods they should and should not consume. Generally found in the mouth and tongue in vertebrates. 

Stimulus → sensory neuron → threshold reached → action potential (Na in, K out) → travels along axon → synapse → neurotransmitters released from vesicles → bind receptors → motor neuron activated → effector (muscle) → behavior 

Stimulus detected  

2. Sensory receptors detect change (Example: heat, sound, predator)  

Resting potential  

3. Neuron starts at -70 mV  

4. Maintained by: Na/K pump; Ungated channels; Dynamic equilibrium (balance of ion movement)  

Threshold reached  

5. Stimulus opens Na⁺ gated channels  

6. Na⁺ enters via concentration gradient  

7. If threshold reached → signal triggered  

Action potential  

8. Rapid Na⁺ influx → depolarization  

9. Then: K⁺ exits → repolarization  

10. Signal travels down axon  

Propagation  

11. Signal moves due to wave of depolarization  

12. Refractory period prevents backward movement  

Synapse  

13. At axon terminal: Vesicles release neurotransmitters  

14. Neurotransmitters cross synapse  

Next neuron activation  

15. Neurotransmitters bind receptors  

16. Open ion channels → new action potential  

Motor neuron activation  

17. Signal eventually reaches motor neuron  

Target effector  

18. Muscle or gland (Example: Muscle contracts → movement) 

19. Behavior occurs 

Starting with a stimulus, explain how an impulse leads to a behavior.. Be sure to include the terms: action potential, resting potential, threshold potential, synapse, neurotransmitters, vesicles, Na and K gated channel proteins, Na and K ungated channel proteins, Na/K pump, target effector, concentration gradient, dynamic equilibrium.  You can use a flow chart but be sure to explain where needed and just don’t take these exact words and link together without brief explanations. (LOOK AT PICTURES IN NOTES) 

• Central Nervous System: (brain/spinal cord)

• Peripheral Nervous System → Autonomic, Somatic, and Sensory

  • Autonomic (involuntary) Nervous System: uncontrollable reactions due to an info stimulus (ex: contractions of small intestine, heart rate while resting, leg arising after hitting patella).

    • Sympathetic (Fight or Flight)

      • Dilates pupil

      • Inhibits flow of saliva

      • Acceleration of heartbeat

      • Dilates bronchi

      • Inhibits peristalsis and secretion

      • Conversion of glycogen to glucose

      • Secretion of adrenaline and noradren

      • Inhibits bladder contraction

    • Parasympathetic (Rest and Digest)

      • Stimulates flow of saliva

      • Slows heartbeat

      • Constricts bronchi

      • Stimulates peristalsis and secretion (stomach and intestine)

      • Stimulates release of bile

      • Contacts bladder

  • Somatic (voluntary) Nervous System: the skeletal system, reactions we can voluntarily control (ex: flexing hand, standing up)

  • Sensory nervous system: the 5 senses, tend to come directly from cranial nervous whereas the other systems stem mostly from spinal nerves.

Give a schematic of a vertebrate nervous system, specifically showing the different parts of the autonomic nervous system (eg sympathetic and parasympathetic) and what physiologically happens in response to when each of these systems are activated.  (LOOK AT PICTURE IN NOTES) 

shift in gene frequency 

What is Natural Selection? 

1. Directional: shift in gene frequency toward 1 phenotypic extreme 

2. Stabilizing: Shift in gene frequency where the phenotypic extremes don’t have advantage or not seen anymore. The median is the most advantageous. 

3. Disruptive: shift in gene frequency where the median phenotypic variation is not advantageous, but both extremes are. 

Axes: y = frequency; x = phenotypic variation 

What are the different forms of natural selection and using a figure, show the differences (be sure to label your axes)

• Females are predacious and will eat males.

• Males have to come up with unique ways to either prevent this or just mate before they get eaten.

• Different methods of gift presentation (sticks, dead food, dead food in balloon, etc.) have appeared.

• Females eat the more careless males, meanwhile more cautious males or males with more advanced gifts survive and reproduce more, causing genes for types of gift giving (behavior) increases and population becomes more inclined towards gift giving. 

How do Balloon flies show N.S. in gift giving?

RIM (Reproductive isolating mechanism): barriers which prevent gene flow between populations. 

What is an RIM?

1. Prezygotic isolating mechanisms: occur before the formation of the zygote. 

2. Postzygotic isolating mechanisms: occur after fertilization.

What are the two different types of RIMs?

Speciation

What is the end result of when RIMs are at work? 

1. Occurs when 2 connected neurons are simulatneously activated in such a way as to strengthen the synapse.  

2. Requires the activation of NMDA (N-methyl d-aspartate) receptors on the cell membranes of the postsynaptic neuron. These receptors have been called “coincidence detectors” because they help the brain to associate two events. 

3. The strengthening of the synapses is what causes memory formation, which can help animals learn about food, home, and areas of safety. 

What is longterm potentiation and how does this work? What specific proteins are required for longterm potentiation?  How is memory formed? 

 Feature detector: neurons respond only to stimuli with particular characteristics. They help recognize important stimuli which can aid in survival (such as against predators or finding mates or food). 

What is the role of feature detectors?  What are they and how do they aid in the survival of species?  

Attributes 

1. Innate  

2. Stereotyped  

3. Runs to completion 

Triggered by sign stimulus    

Helpful to use because a fast, automatic response can aid survival (ex: pulling hand away from heat or reflex behaviors) 

So what are the attributes of a FAP?  What is required for a FAP to occur?  How might this be helpful to you and I?

1. FAP: rigid, no variation 

2. MAP: flexible, can vary with the context 

According to Barlow what is the main difference between a MAP and a FAP?

Goose retrieving egg

• Sign stimulus: egg outside nest

• Releaser (IRM): visual recognition of egg

• Behavior (FAP): goose rolls egg back into nest

Stickleback fish aggression

• Sign stimulus: the color red (ex: red belly of another male)

• Releaser: visual detection of red

• Behavior (FAP): attack response

Give two examples of a FAP and be sure to identify the sign stimulus and releaser. 

They are both involved in spatial memory (learning locations) 

Techniques 

1. Transection: nerves cut, look for loss of function 

2. Lesion: electrical current/chemicals used to destroy specific brain areas...can do reverse ones to restore. 

3. Transplantation: neural tissue transferred from one to another or from one location to another. 

What is the function of the hippocampus and parahippocampus?  What techiques have been used to figure out what the function of these two regions of the brain are? 

1. Negative Feedback loop: reverses the direction of the action (ex: slowing down heartrate after a run is done). The most common in hormone behavior and typically stabilizes. 

2. Positive Feedback loop: continues the action in the same direction (ex: blood clotting). Usually amplifies an action and can use synergism. 

What is a Feedback Loop (positive vs negative)?

• Synergism: 2 hormones secreted for the same function; can have different individual functions. Ex: Female estrogen and progesterone are often in circulation and act simultaneously together to affect sexual behavior in vertebrates. Are combined to make an effect greater. 

• Antagonism: works with negative feedback loops, when 2 hormones secreted have opposing effects. 

What is synergism vs. antagonism in regards to feedback loops?

1. Hormones shape development early in life (permanent) 

2. Involve hormonal influences during critical periods in behavorial development that produce relatively permanent changes in the organisms nervous system and other tissues. 

What are Organizational Effects? 

Activational effects: occur when hormone secretion or inhibition of secretion leads to a relatively rapid response. Can involve complex interactions between behavior, hormones, and environmental stimuli, and have both direct effects on behavior and secondary sexual characteristics. 

When does an Activational Effect occur especially as it relates to behavior?

Reproductive sequence in Ring doves:

• Androgens important in males for the initiation of courtship

• Courtship stimulates pituitary to release FSH in females, which stimulates follicle development in ovaries. Follicles secrete estrogen, which affects uterine growth/development.

• Within 1-2 days, females initiate nest building and copulation ensues while nest being built. Presence of nest stimulates production of progesterone in females and promotes incubation behavior in both after eggs laid.

• Egg laying is activated by LH (female’s pituitary)

• Incubation maintained by progesterone in both males/females for 14 days.

• Incubation behavior and presence of eggs induces both male’s and female’s pituitary to secrete prolactin. Prolactin stimulates production of crop milk in sexes and maintains incubation behavior, and inhibits FSH and LH secretion, sex behavior stops.

• Hatchlings hatch in 2 weeks, feed on crop milk, and during 10-12 days, both parents continue to feed young crop milk, but wanes as prolactin decreases. As prolactin decreases, FSH/LH secreted, pair resumes courtship and sequence begins again.

Why is this an example?

• Each stage in the sequence is dependent on certain interactions and cues from preceding stages. The behavior of each member of pair that stimulates changes in the hormonal levels and behavior of its mate, and environmental cues (nests/eggs) influence hormonal/behavioral changes in both. Hormonal states of both sexes included feedback loops. 

• Both members of the pair are in synchrony. 

• At each stage, internal state of each bird interacts with external variables to produce observed patterns. 

We will review 4 behavioral interactions (ring doves, rats, lizards and house sparrows time permitting) and be sure you memorize one of these as you’ll be asked to review why this interaction is an example of an activational effect and be able to give the details of what is happening between the two (as far as the behavior and hormone eliciting the behavior). 

Biological rhythms: occur when animal activities and behavior patterns can be directly related to distinct environmental features that occur with regular frequencies. Relatively insensitive to change in temperature and generally unaffected by metabolic poisons or inhibitors that block biochemical pathways within cells. 

What is a biological rhythm?

Biological clocks

internal timing mechanisms that involve both self-sustaining physiological pacemakers and environmental cyclic synchronizers. 

• Cycles: repeating units of biological rhythm 

• Period: length of time required to complete an entire cycle of the rhythm. 

• Amplitude: the magnitude of change in activity rate during a cycle in a biological rhythm. 

• Phase: any specified recognizable part of a cycle of a biological rhythm. 

what are the components of a biological rhythm?

• Epicycles/Ultradian

• Tidal

• Lunar

• Circadian

• Circannual

• Free

What are the types of biological rhythms?

Biological rhythms where cycles of short duration.  

What is an epicycle/ultradian rhythm?

biological rhythms which affect activity periods in many organisms that inhabit the zone. 

What are tidal rhythms?

biological rhythms based on the 29.4 day cycle of the moon. Related to tidal rhythm. 

What are lunar rhythms?

biological rhythms of about 24 hours that are sustained by internal pacemakers. 

What are circadian rhythms?

biological rhythms where the behavioral and physiological patterns are governed by self-sustaining internal pacemakers and occur within a period of about one year. 

What are circannual rhythms?

biological rhythms which have a different period than any known cyclic environmental variable. This provides indirect evidence for an endogenous pacemaker and occurs when many organisms are placed in constant environmental conditions and exhibit unique activity rhythms. Usually follow Aschoff’s Rule. 

What are free rhythms?

when animals are kept in constant darkness their activity rhythm continues for nearly 24 hours, but it drifts slightly, becoming somewhat shorter or longer each day. 

What is Aschoff’s rule?

• Basic Paradigms: Classical conditioning involves a stimulus-stimulus pairing: the CS and US are paired, meanwhile, operant conditioning involves pairing the stimulus and response. 

• Control: In classical conditioning, the subject does not control the sequence of events (responses are elicited) and in operant conditioning, the sequence of events are contingent upon the responses of the subject (responses are emitted). 

What is the difference between Operant and Classical Conditioning?

• Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian or Respondent): a form of learning in which responses that are usually reflexive (and thus elicited) are brought under the control of the stimulus events that precede the response. Association between stimuli. 

• Operant Conditional (instrumental learning): a form of learning in which responses that are voluntary (and thus emitted) come to be controlled by their consequences (+ or -). Behavior shaped by consequences (+ or -). 

What is Classical and Operant Conditioning?

• Extinction: the decrease of response rate or magnitude with lack of reinforcement. If the unconditioned stimulus for a time in classical conditioning or eliminates reward in operent conditioning, the response is extinguished. The time it takes for this to happen depends upon several variables such as how long since the conditioning procedure has been and has it been continuous or intermittent reinforcement. 

• Fatigue: temporary inability or decline in response due to exhaustion; usually occurs when it is repeated in rapid succession. Last a relatively short time. 

Know the difference between extinction and fatigue. 

Type of habituation that generally occurs at the peripheral sensory receptors level. It consists of a reduction in, or cessation of nerve impulses transmitted to the central nervous system. Last a relatively short time. 

Know what sensory adaptation is and the different elements that lead to this phenomenon.