KNAT

To add fractions

get a common denominator and then add the numerators

To subtract fractions

get a common denominator and then subtract the numerators

To multiply fractions

multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators

To divide fractions

invert the second fraction and multiply

To convert a fraction to a decimal

divide the numerator by the denominator

To convert a decimal to a fraction

set the decimal over 1. Then move the decimal over as many places as it takes until it is immediately to the right of the units digit. Reduce

To multiply terms consisting of coefficients multiplied by powers having the same base

multiply the coefficients and add the exponents

To divide terms consisting of coefficients multiplied by powers having the same base

divide the coefficients and subtract the exponents

44 percent of 25

0.44 x 25

42 is what percent of 70

42/70= 0.6

0.6 x 100% = 60%

polysaccharides

broken down into glucose

triglycerides

hydrolyzed into fatty acids and glycerol

proteins

broken down into amino acids

saliva contains

salivary amylase- an enzyme that breaks the complex starch polysaccharide into maltose ( a disaccharide)

sinoatrial node

pacemaker of the heart

ventricular contraction occurs during

systole

atrial contraction occurs during

diastole

The most important nervous stimulation of the heart is induced by

the vagus nerve of the parasympathetic nervous system

- acts to slow heart rate

The sympathetic nervous system and epinephrine

increase heart rate

Arteries

carry blood to the tissues of the body from the heart

- thick walled, muscular & elastic

Arterial blood

is oxygenated

Blood in the pulmonary artery

deoxygenated

Veins

carry blood back to the heart from the tissues

- thin walled, conduct at low pressure, contain valves to prevent backflow of blood

Venous blood

is deoxygenated

Blood in the pulmonary vein

oxygenated

Capillaries

thin walled vessels that are very small in diameter

- walls are made of one layer of endothelial cells

- allows for the exchange of exchange of materials between the blood and the body's cells

Cells in blood include

red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets

Oxygen rich blood is blood that

flows into systemic circulation

What process begins with red blood cells giving up oxygen to other cells in the body?

internal respiration

After the trachea, the first branch that leads toward the lungs is the

bronchi

What is a characteristic of compact bone?

made of dense connective tissue

After urine flows through one sphincter at the start of the bladder, this fluid flows through the

second sphincter under voluntary control

When do vesicles contract and move to the presynaptic membrane?

after calcium ions flood the axon bulb

Nodes of ranvier are

spaces between myelin sheaths

What is usually the first line of defense when a pathogen invades?

mucous covering

Killer T cells and B cells are stimulated to act by a protein that ___ release

helper T cells

After blood leaves the aorta, it travels to the

arteries

The oxygen carrying component in red blood cells

hemoglobin

Type O blood

no antigens, A and B antibodies (universal donor)

Type AB blood

A and B antigens and no antibodies (universal recipient)

Passive immunity

barriers to entry

- skin, lining of lungs, mouth, stomach

Active immunity

conferred by the cellular part of the immune system

- lymphocytes

B cells

produce antibodies or immunoglobulins which are secreted proteins specific to foreign molecules

Helper T cells

coordinate immune responses

Killer T cells

attack & dispose of cells infected with intracellular pathogens

Oxygen in respiration

used to drive electron transport and ATP production, and CO2 is produced from burning glucose

Breathing rate is controlled by

medulla oblongata

Air passages in respiration

nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

Pharynx

involved in diverting ingested material into the esophagus and away from the lungs to prevent choking

Larynx

contains a membrane that vibrates in a controlled manner with the passage of air to create the voice

Trachea

carries air through the vulnerable throat protected by flexible but strong rings of cartilage

Alveoli

tiny air sacs that are the site of gas exchange in the lungs

Alveoli...

have thin, moist walls and are surrounded by thin-walled capillaries

- oxygen passes into the blood by diffusion through the alveolar and capillary walls

Gas exchange in the alveoli involve

passive diffusion

- * gases always diffuse from higher to lower concentration

Endocrine system

the network of glands and tissues that secrete hormones

Endocrine glands

secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream

Hypothalamus

connects the nervous system with the endocrine system

Growth hormone

fosters growth in a variety of body tissues

Thyroid stimulating hormone

stimulates the thyroid to secrete thyroxine

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete its corticoids

Prolactin

responsible for milk production in females by the mammary gland

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

spurs maturation of seminiferous tubules in males and causes maturation of ovaries in females. Also encourages maturation of follicles in the ovaries

Luitenizing Hormone (LH)

induces interstitial cells of the testes to mature by beginning to secrete testosterone. in females, LH surge stimulates ovulation of the primary oocyte from the follicle

posterior pituitary

direct extension of nervous tissue from the hypothalamus

ADH

vasopressin, acts on the kidneys to reduce water loss

Oxytocin

acts on the uterus during birth to cause uterine contraction

Endocrine function of the pancreas is centered in

islets of langerhans

Islets of langerhans

secrete glucagon

Adrenal cortex

synthesizes corticosteroids & small amounts of androgens for both male & female

Adrenal medulla

produces epinephrine and norepinephrine

Nervous system

enables organisms to receive and respond to stimuli from their external & internal environments

Neurons

specialized cells designed to transmit information in the form of electrochemical signals called action potentials

Synaptic cleft

the gap between the neuron and target cell

Somatic motor nervous system

innervates skeletal muscle and is responsible for voluntary movement

- motor neurons release ACh

Autonomic nervous system

functions to regulate the involuntary functions of the body

- heart, blood vessels, GI tract, urogenital organs, respiration

Sympathetic nervous system

utilizes norepinephrine as its primary neurotransmitter

- responsible for activating the body in emergency situations (fight or flight)

Parasympathetic nervous system

acetycholine serves as the primary neurotransmitter

- deactivates or slows down activities of the muscles & glands (rest and digest)

Homeostasis

the bodies ability to maintain stable internal conditions in spite of continually changing external conditions

Negative feedback

when the body senses an internal change and activates mechanisms that reverse that change

Cerebral cortex

controls all voluntary motor activity

Olfactory lobe

serves as the center for reception and integration of olfactory input

Thalamus

nervous impulses and sensory information are relayed and integrated en route to and from the cerebral cortex by this region

Hypothalamus

hunger, thirst, pain, temperature regulation

- homeostatic functions

Cerebellum

muscle activity is coordinated and modulated here

Pons

serves as the relay center for cerebral cortical fibers en route to the cerebellum

Medulla Oblangata

functions like breathing, heart rate & GI activity

- receptors to detect carbon dioxide

Reticular activating system

network of neurons in the brainstem involved in processing signals from sensory input and transmitting them. Also involved in regulating the activity of the other brain regions in order to alter levels of alertness and attention

Cones

respond to high-intensity illumination and are sensitive to color

Rods

detect low-intensity illumination and are important for night vision

Optic nerves

conduct visual information to the brain

Outer ear

consists of auricle (pinna) and the auditory canal

Middle ear

located at the end of the auditory canal is the tympanic membrane (eardrum) which vibrates at the same rate as incoming sound

Inner ear

ossicles (malleus,incus & stapes) amplify the stimulus and transmit it through an oval window leading to the fluid filled inner ear

- interpreted by the CNS

Taste buds

chemical sensory cells located on the tongue, soft palate, and the epiglottis

Outer surface of a taste bud

contains a taste pore from which microvilli protrude

Olfactory receptors

found in the olfactory membrane, which lies in the upper part of the nostrils

Bone

made from calcium, phosphate salts and strands of protein collagen

Ligaments

serve as bone to bone connectors

Axial skeleton

midline basic framework of the body. the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage

Appendicular skeleton

bones of the appendages as well as pectoral & pelvic girdles