AP Psych Unit 1 Terms

Myasthenia Gravis

Disorder causing muscle weakness due to problems with communication between nerves and muscles

Oxytocin

Hormone involved in bonding, trust, childbirth, and social attachment

Alcohol

Depressant that slows brain activity and impairs judgment, coordination, and reaction time

Heredity

The passing of traits from parents to offspring through genes. Heredity influences characteristics such as eye color, height, and certain behaviors

Nature

The idea that genetics and biological factors shape behavior and development. Example: inherited personality tendencies

Nurture

The idea that environment, experiences, and learning shape behavior and development. Example: culture affecting language or values

Genetic Predisposition

Increased likelihood of developing certain traits or disorders because of inherited genes. Example: higher risk for anxiety or depression

Evolutionary Perspective

Psychological perspective explaining behavior through adaptation and survival. Behaviors that helped ancestors survive were more likely to be passed on

Natural Selection

Process in which traits that improve survival and reproduction become more common over generations

Eugenics

Discredited movement that attempted to improve human populations through selective breeding and limiting reproduction of certain groups

Twin Studies

Research studies comparing identical and fraternal twins to examine the influence of genetics versus environment

Family Studies

Studies examining how traits or disorders appear within families to determine possible genetic influence

Adoption Studies

Studies comparing adopted individuals with their biological and adoptive families to separate genetic and environmental influences

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The part of the nervous system made up of the brain and spinal cord. It processes information and directs responses throughout the body

Brain

The control center of the nervous system that processes thoughts, emotions, memory, sensation, and movement

Spinal Cord

Bundle of nerves connecting the brain to the rest of the body. It carries messages and controls reflexes

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The network of nerves outside the brain and spinal cord that connects the CNS to the body's muscles, organs, and senses

Autonomic Nervous System

Division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and digestion

Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system that activates the body during stress or emergencies. It triggers the "fight-or-flight" response. Example: increased heart rate during fear

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and restores energy after stress. Often called the "rest-and-digest" system

Somatic Nervous System

Division of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary muscle movements and carries sensory information to the CNS. Example: moving your arm intentionally

Neurons

Specialized nerve cells that receive, process, and transmit information throughout the nervous system using electrical and chemical signals

Glial Cells

Support cells in the nervous system that protect, nourish, and assist neurons. They also help form myelin

Reflex Arc

Simple automatic pathway in which the spinal cord quickly responds to a stimulus without waiting for the brain. Example: pulling your hand away from something hot

Heroin

Highly addictive opioid that produces intense pleasure and sedation

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing commands from the brain and spinal cord to muscles or glands

Interneurons

Neurons located within the brain and spinal cord that process information and connect sensory and motor neurons

Neural Transmission

The process of sending signals between neurons through electrical impulses and neurotransmitters

Action Potential

Brief electrical impulse that travels down a neuron when it fires

All-or-Nothing Principle

Rule stating that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all once threshold is reached

Depolarization

Change in electrical charge during an action potential when positive ions enter the neuron

Refractory Period

Brief resting period after a neuron fires when it cannot fire again immediately

Resting Potential

The neuron's stable negative charge when it is not actively firing

Reuptake

Process where neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron after transmitting a signal

Threshold

Minimum level of stimulation required for a neuron to fire an action potential

Multiple Sclerosis

Nervous system disorder in which the immune system damages the myelin sheath, slowing neural communication

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that increase the likelihood that a neuron will fire

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that decrease the likelihood that a neuron will fire

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter involved in movement, reward, motivation, and pleasure. Imbalances are linked to disorders such as Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter involved in mood, sleep, appetite, and emotional regulation. Low levels are linked to depression

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter involved in alertness, attention, and stress responses

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory

GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps calm neural activity and reduce anxiety

Endorphins

Natural pain-relieving neurotransmitters released during stress, exercise, or excitement

Substance P

Neurotransmitter involved in transmitting pain signals

Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, learning, and memory

Hormones

Chemical messengers released by glands that travel through the bloodstream and affect body functions and behavior

Adrenaline

Hormone released during stress that increases heart rate, energy, and alertness

Leptin

Hormone that signals fullness and helps regulate appetite

Ghrelin

Hormone that stimulates hunger and signals the body to eat

Melatonin

Hormone that helps regulate sleep and circadian rhythms

Psychoactive Drugs

Chemicals that affect the brain and alter mood, perception, thinking, or behavior

Agonists

Drugs that increase or mimic the effects of neurotransmitters

Antagonists

Drugs that block or reduce the effects of neurotransmitters

Reuptake Inhibitors

Drugs that block neurotransmitter reabsorption, allowing more neurotransmitters to remain in the synapse

Stimulants

Drugs that increase alertness, energy, heart rate, and nervous system activity

Caffeine

Mild stimulant that increases alertness and reduces tiredness

Cocaine

Powerful stimulant that increases dopamine activity and produces intense energy and euphoria

Depressants

Drugs that slow nervous system activity and reduce alertness

Hallucinogens

Drugs that distort perception, mood, and sensory experiences

Marijuana

Psychoactive drug that can alter mood, perception, memory, and coordination

Opioids

Pain-relieving drugs that produce relaxation and euphoria but carry high addiction risk

Tolerance

Reduced response to a drug after repeated use, causing larger amounts to be needed

Addiction

Compulsive drug use despite harmful consequences

Withdrawal

Physical and psychological symptoms that occur when stopping or reducing drug use

Brain Stem

Oldest and most basic part of the brain that controls vital survival functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and sleep

Medulla

Part of the brain stem that controls automatic functions like heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

Network in the brain stem involved in arousal, alertness, and attention. Helps regulate sleep and wakefulness

Reward Center

Brain areas involved in pleasure, motivation, and reinforcement, largely connected to dopamine activity

Cerebellum (little brain)

Brain structure involved in balance, coordination, posture, and fine motor movement

Cerebral Cortex

Thin outer layer of the brain responsible for higher thinking, perception, language, and voluntary movement

Limbic System

Group of brain structures involved in emotion, motivation, memory, and survival behaviors

Thalamus

Brain structure that acts as a sensory relay station, directing incoming sensory information to the correct brain areas

Hypothalamus

Brain structure that regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, hormones, and motivated behaviors

Pituitary Gland

Endocrine gland controlled by the hypothalamus that releases hormones affecting growth and other body functions

Hippocampus

Brain structure involved in forming and organizing new memories

Amygdala

Brain structure involved in processing emotions, especially fear, anger, and aggression

Corpus Callosum

Large bundle of nerve fibers connecting the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing communication between them

Split Brain Research

Research studying people whose corpus callosum was severed, showing that the two hemispheres can function independently

Hemispheric Specialization

Idea that certain functions are more strongly controlled by one hemisphere than the other. Example: language is usually left-hemisphere dominant

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

Principle stating each hemisphere mainly controls the opposite side of the body

Occipital Lobes

Brain lobes at the back of the brain responsible mainly for visual processing

Temporal Lobes

Brain lobes involved in hearing, language, memory, and emotion

Parietal Lobes

Brain lobes involved in touch, body position, and spatial awareness

Frontal Lobes

Brain lobes involved in decision-making, personality, reasoning, planning, and voluntary movement

Association Areas

Regions of the cerebral cortex involved in integrating information and performing complex mental tasks

Somatosensory Cortex

Area of the parietal lobes that processes touch, pressure, temperature, and pain sensations

Motor Cortex

Area of the frontal lobes controlling voluntary body movements

Linguistic Processing

Brain functions involved in understanding and producing language

Higher-Order Thinking

Complex mental processes such as reasoning, problem-solving, judgment, and planning

Executive Functioning

Mental skills involved in planning, attention, self-control, organization, and decision-making

Prefrontal Cortex

Front part of the frontal lobes responsible for executive functioning, impulse control, and complex reasoning

Broca's Area

Area in the left frontal lobe involved in speech production and language expression

Wernicke's Area

Area in the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension and understanding speech

Aphasia (Broca's and Wernicke's)

Language disorder caused by brain damage.

Broca's aphasia: difficulty speaking fluently

Wernicke's aphasia: difficulty understanding language

Plasticity

Brain's ability to reorganize and adapt by forming new neural connections, especially after learning or injury

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

Technique that records electrical activity in the brain using electrodes on the scalp

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Brain imaging technique showing brain activity by measuring blood flow changes

Lesioning

removal or destruction of part of the brain