Psych

Multi-Store Memory Model

Input→Sensory→STM (through attention)→LTM (through rehearsal)

Social Identity Theory

Social identity theory aims to specify and predict the circumstances under which individuals think of themselves as individuals or as group members. The theory also considers the consequences of personal and social identities for individual perceptions and group behaviour

Social Cognitive Learning Theory

Described as the influence of individual experiences, the actions of others, and environmental factors on individual health behaviors.

Conformity

Aligning one’s attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors with social norms or group pressure.

Asch Paradigm

The paradigm that conformity that Asch observed was largely a case of compliance (public conformity) without internal acceptance of the groups answer. Many participants answers matched those of the people who went before them on the line test even when the knew they were wrong.

Salient

The quality by which and item/idea stands out relative to its neighbors, grabbing someone’s attention.

Prejudice

A preconceived negative attitude, emotion, or belief directed towards a person based on their group membership.

In-group

Tendency of individuals to identify either a specific group. It creates emotional attachments, loyalty, and preferential treatment for members. Tend to view outsiders with suspicion, stereotypes, and hostility

Out Group

How individuals perceive and behave toward groups they don’t belong to, normally resulting in negative stereotypes.

Positive Distinctiveness

Key component of SIT. Where individuals strive to view their own in group as superior to the out groups to boost self esteem.

Homogeneity Bias

Tendency to perceive members of ingroup as diverse but to view those in our groups as all the same.

Discrimination

Unjust/differential treatment of individuals based on the group they belong to. Tends to be driven by prejudice.

Stereotype

A fixed/overgeneralized/biased belief about a specific group of people. It allows individuals to categorize people by their group membership rather than their individual characteristics

Implicit bias

Unconscious attitudes and stereotypes that influence actions, understanding, and decisions involuntarily.

Explicit bias

Conscious/intentional attitudes, beliefs, and stereotypes. Normally expressed through speech and behaviors driven by prejudice.

Schema

Cognitive framework that helps people organize and process information efficiently

Illusory correlation

A cognitive bias where a person perceives a relationship between two behaviors, even when there isn’t a connection at all.

Confirmation bias

Cognitive bias where people interpret and recall information that confirms already existing beliefs.

Stereotype threat

Where people feel at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group.

Spotlight Anxiety

Cognitive bias where people overestimate how much others notice and judge appearance, actions, and even mistakes.

Cultural Dimensions

A framework for understanding how cultural values shape behavior in society. They include: Power Distance, Individualism, Masculinity, Uncertainty Avoidance, Long Term Orientation, and Indulgence.

Etic

This approach is cross-cultural, and studies behavior from the outside to find behaviors and trends that apply to other cultures.

Emic

An inside approach that studies behavior from within a culture. Focuses on how local people think and perceive the world.

Individualism vs Collectivism

Individualism prioritizes self expression and putting oneself first (independence) while Collectivism favors group harmony and interdependence.

Enculturation

Process of learning and adapting to norms and behaviors of one’s own heritage and culture.

Acculturation

Process of social and cultural change that results from long term interaction and exposure to other cultures.

Acculturative Stress

Form of emotional and physical strain that comes from adapting to a new culture.

Reverse Culture Shock

Readjustment difficulty people have when returning to their home culture after being abroad for a long time. Fun fact~ this has actually happened to me before.

Semantic Memory

Long term storage of general knowledge, facts, and concepts that exclude personal experience.

Episodic Memory

Conscious recollection of specific personal experiences, such as the what, where, when of events.

procedural memory

a type of long-term, implicit memory responsible for knowing how to perform tasks, motor skills, and habits automatically without conscious thought

serial position effect

the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best, while middle items are forgotten most often.

recency effect

a cognitive bias where individuals best remember the most recently presented information or events, as these items are still fresh in short-term memory.

research hypothesis

a concise, testable statement that predicts the outcome of a project or experiment

reconstructive memory

a psychological theory that memory is an active, ongoing process of rebuilding past events rather than a passive, accurate recording

context dependent memory

the improved recall of information when the retrieval environment matches the environment present during encoding

assimilation

a cognitive process where people integrate new information into their existing understanding, perceptions, and schemas

flashbulb memory

exceptionally vivid, long-lasting memories for the circumstances surrounding hearing about a shocking, highly emotional, or significant public event

amygdala

part of the brain; key component of the limbic system primarily associated with emotional processes and memory

dual process model

phobias are acquired through classical conditioning (association) and maintained through operant conditioning (negative reinforcement)

system 1 (intuitive)

the fast, automatic, and intuitive thinking mode

system 2 (rational)

slow, deliberate, and logical way of thinking

heuristic

mental shortcuts, "rules of thumb," or intuitive strategies that simplify decision-making and problem-solving

cognitive miser

the human tendency to conserve mental energy by using shortcuts (heuristics) rather than effortful thinking to solve problems and make decisions

cognitive bias

unconscious, systematic errors in thinking that distort perception, judgment, and decision-making

anchoring bias

a cognitive bias where individuals rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered (the "anchor") when making decisions, even if that information is irrelevant

peak end rule

heuristic where people judge an experience based on how they felt at its most intense point (the peak) and its conclusion (the end), rather than the total sum or average of the experience

framing effect

a cognitive bias where people decide on options based on whether the presentation is positive (gain) or negative (loss), rather than just the facts

equipotential theory

idea that if part of the brain is damaged, other, intact areas of the cortex can take over the functionality of the damaged region

hippocampus

The hippocampus is a major component of the brain located in the temporal lobe (on each hemisphere). Very important for moving memory to long term, navigation, learning, etc

fMRI

a noninvasive, pain-free, non-radioactive imaging technique that maps brain activity by measuring small changes in blood flow

MRI

MRI is a noninvasive way for a medical professional to examine your organs, tissues and skeletal system. It produces high-resolution images of the inside of the body that help diagnose a variety of conditions.

PET

A positron emission tomography scan is a type of imaging test. It uses a radioactive substance called a tracer to look for disease in the body

neurogenesis

the vital process of creating new functional neurons from neural stem cells,

myelin sheath

protective layer of fatty tissue that insulates the axons of many neurons, enabling rapid and efficient transmission of electrical nerve impulses

neuron

specialized cells of the nervous system that transmit information throughout the body via electrical and chemical signals

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers released by neurons to transmit signals across synapses to other neurons, muscle cells, or glands, controlling essential bodily functions like movement, emotions, sleep, and heart rate.

excitatory neurotransmitters

Excitatory neurotransmitters increase the likelihood that a postsynaptic neuron will fire an action potential, promoting the transmission of nerve impulses.

inhibitory neurotransmitters

Inhibitory neurotransmitters reduce the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential by hyperpolarizing the postsynaptic cell

reuptake inhibitor

Reuptake inhibitors are a class of psychoactive drugs that increase the extracellular levels of neurotransmitters—such as serotonin, norepinephrine, or dopamine—by blocking their re-absorption (reuptake) into the pre-synaptic neuron