hsci exam 1 sexuality

What is SGD

Sex and gender diverse , term referring to individuals who are diverse on their sex and gender

What is ethnocentrism

Belief that one’s culture or ethnic group is the norm and others aren’t

Why should we consider multiple perspectives on sexuality

Sexuality is never neutral and everyone an contribute their ideas, can contribute to ethnocentrism, views are shapes y media unconsciously , need critical thinking

How does media share sexuality

Crates and reinforces sexual script, internet may enable predators but can also encourage sex ed and normalize diverse sexuality

How does religion influence sexuality

Judaism says sex is good in marriage and the modern focus is in strengthening the marital bond. In Christianity the Catholics oppose contraception, aortion and non procreative sex. In Hinduism rulee vary buy sex, caste and gender. Hijra is their third gender

How does culture influence sexaloty

Ethnocentrism makes us treat our own norms as default and man are typically more sexually free, monogamy is widespread and universal regulations such as incest is taboo and that rape has many rules

What is the historical approach to sexuality in advertising

Sex was originally censored due to religion and laws against selling contraceptives, sex items were disguised. Shift in the 1900. Women’s insecurities exploited

What is the historical approach to sexuality in film

Lots of sexual innuendo, first non pornographic unity was in inspiration 1915, topless females usually doesn’t result in a R rating today

What is the historical approach to sexuality in TV

First male male kiss was on a 1960 BBC Colombe, female, female kiss in LA law 1991, viewers 4x more likely to use condoms after watching would city (south Africa 1992)

Regional variations in Canada

Sexual frequency higher in maritime and decreased towards bc and the pararies.

Key Canadian context issues

Same sex decriminalized in 1965, Same-sex couples had marriage benefits since 1999; full legalization 2005, same sex have more equal divisions of labour. Indigenous communities ave a lot of sexual abuse . 2 spirit

What are the three main reasons sex and advertising was censored in western culture

Influence of religion, concern that sexual activity could lead to. Population increase and that contraceptives were illlegal

What did the Severn, Belch & Belch (1990) study conclude about sex in advertising? And how did Gallup & Robinson (2012) differ?

Severn unless the ad is specifically for a sexual product thee person remembers the scene over the product. Gallups when used effectively sex increases recall by 77% compared to non sexual

Name the two most universal regulations around sexuality that exist across virtually all cultures.

Incest taboo and regulations against rape

What are TWO key differences between Canada and the US regarding legal recognition of same-sex relationships?

Canada decriminalized same-sex acts in 1965 — the US didn’t until 2003

2. Canada legalized same-sex marriage in 2005 — the US didn’t until 2015

What impact did colonization have on Indigenous peoples and sexuality in Canada? Name at least THREE points.

1. Sexual abuse in residential schools took destructive toll on individuals and families

2. Higher sexual assault rates and lower reporting rates in Indigenous communities today

3. Two-spirit people were persecuted during colonization

4. This persecution damaged some Indigenous communities’ own acceptance of two-spirit people

5. Some Indigenous groups have a more accepting view of gender variations than mainstream North American culture

How do theories help us understand real wold

Explains how things work and help communicate complex topics while being challenged with new evidence

What is the psychodynamic theory (Freud)

First theory to explain psychosexual development

• 3 parts of personality: ID (unconscious urges), Ego (mediates reality vs urges), Superego (internalized standards/conscience)

• 5 psychosexual stages: Oral (0–2), Anal (2–4), Phallic (4–6), Latency (6–puberty), Genital (puberty+)

• Fixation = getting stuck at a stage → adult problems

• Oedipus complex = phallic stage, boy sees father as rival for mother’s affection

• Pros: first to link childhood to personality; gave us psychoanalysis

• Cons: overemphasis on male sexuality; flawed data; not falsifiable

What is classical conditioning Pavlov

Neutral stimulus + unconditioned stimulus → conditioned response over time

• Applied to understanding fetishes and compulsive sexual behaviours

• Therapeutic use: pair fetish with ammonia (nausea) → fetish becomes associated with nausea instead of pleasure

What is operant conditioning

Behaviour modified by consequences/reinforcement

• Positive reinforcement = rewarded → repeat behaviour

• Negative reinforcement = unpleasant thing removed → behaviour more likely

• Primary reinforcers = intrinsically satisfying rewards (sex, food)

What is social learning theory

Builds on operant conditioning but adds social context

• We learn by observing and modelling others’ behaviours and outcomes

• Self-efficacy = sense of competence when successfully performing a behaviour

What is social exchange theory

People maximize rewards and minimize costs in relationships

• 4 components: balance of costs/rewards, equity/equality, comparison level, comparison level for alternatives

What is cognitive theory

Focuses on thought processes to understand behaviour

• Distorted thoughts → frustration, psychological disorders, harmful behaviour

What is genetic theory

Genes influence sexuality through hormone production, reproductive cycles, sexual orientation, conception, genetic disorders

• Example: Klinefelter’s Syndrome (XXY)

What is sociobiological theory

• Applies evolutionary biology to social/sexual behaviour

• Sexual selection = mate selection process

• Intersexual = choosing one mate over another

• Intrasexual = competing with same-sex individuals for breeding access

What is the dual control model

Sexual response is shaped by the balance between neurobiological, environmental, and cultural factors

• Two systems: Excitement (turns you on) vs Inhibition (turns you off)

• Both operate simultaneously to produce sexual response

What is sociological theory

Social institutions (religion, family, gender inequality) regulate sexuality

• Sexuality is linked to power, kinship, and ideology

What is the social scripts theory

Social interactions follow predefined, culturally recognized sequences of behaviour

• Traditional Sexual Script (TSS) = specific sequences people consider appropriate for sexual situations

What is the Ecological Model (Bronfenbrenner)

Framework showing how personal, relationship, and environmental factors all interact and influence each other

• Each layer = a system (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem)

What is the feminist theory

Examines inequalities between men and women and how they affect women’s sexuality

• Studies women’s experiences from their own perspective

• Notes that “typical” sexual behaviour tends to favour men

What is motivational theory

Many reasons why people have sex

• Approach goals → better sexual outcomes than avoidance goals

• Self-determination theory: sex motivated by personal choice, values, and enjoyment leads to better outcomes

How do researchers employ, test, refine, or refute theories?

The cycle: Theory → Prediction → Experiment → Observation → modify/create theory

• Theories generate hypotheses that can be tested

• Results either support, challenge, or refine the theory

• Example: Freud’s theory was criticized because it is NOT falsifiable — you can’t experimentally test it, which is a major weakness

What is the difference between the ID, Ego, and Superego according to Freud? Give a brief description of each.

ID = unconscious instinctual urges and desires (your raw impulses — wants pleasure immediately)

• Ego = operates consciously and preconsciously — mediates between the outside world, your personal urges, and your conscience (the “realist” balancing everything)

• Superego = your internalized standards and morals (conscious — your inner “rulebook”)

What are Freud’s 5 psychosexual stages in order? For each one, name the age range and erogenous zone.

“Old Angry People Love Getting”

• Oral → 0–2 years → Mouth (sucking, biting, chewing)

• Anal → 2–4 years → Anus (bowel and bladder control)

• Phallic → 4–6 years → Genitals (masturbation, Oedipus complex)

• Latency → 6–puberty → None (repression of sexual feelings)

• Genital → Puberty onward → Genitals (sexual maturation)

Key things to remember:Fixation = getting stuck at any stage → causes problems in adulthood

• Oedipus complex happens in the phallic stage — boy sees dad as rival for mom’s affection

• Latency is the only stage with no erogenous zone

What are TWO pros and TWO cons of Freud’s psychodynamic theory?

PROS:

1. First theory to emphasize the importance of childhood experience in personality development

2. Provided a therapeutic approach (psychoanalysis) to help people with psychological problems

CONS:

1. Overemphasis on sex, particularly from the male perspective — ignored women’s experiences

2. Not falsifiable — impossible to test the theory experimentally, which is a major scientific weakness

Explain the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning. How does each one relate to sexuality?

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

• Pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus → eventually creates a conditioned response

• Sexuality example: how fetishes develop — an object gets repeatedly paired with sexual arousal until the object alone causes arousal

• Therapeutic use: pair the fetish with ammonia (nausea) → fetish becomes associated with nausea instead of pleasure

Operant Conditioning

• Behaviour is modified by its consequences/reinforcement

• Positive reinforcement = rewarded for behaviour → do it more (e.g. sex feels good → seek it again)

• Negative reinforcement = unpleasant thing removed → behaviour more likely

• Primary reinforcers = intrinsically satisfying rewards like sex and food

Easy way to distinguish them:

• Classical = associations (linking two things together)

• Operant = consequences (reward or punishment shapes behaviour)

What is the Dual Control Model of sexuality? Name its two components and explain what they do.

1. Excitement (Sexual Excitation System) = the “gas pedal” — turns sexual response ON

2. Inhibition (Sexual Inhibition System) = the “brake pedal” — turns sexual response OFF

What are the challenges in sex research

Finding willing and honest participants getting a representative (random) sample, avoiding bias, choosing the right method.

What stats do they use

Mean, median, mode, range — plus incidence vs. prevalence vs. correlation (and correlation ≠ causation).

What is kinseys approach

Interview-based, 17,500 interviews over 18 years. Created the 0–6 sexual orientation scale. Criticized for non-random samples, oversampling white people, and focusing on behaviour over identity.

What is masters and Johnson

Empirical/observational approach — they actually measured sexual response in a lab setting (late 1950s).

What are some research designs

Descriptive (observation, interview, case study, content analysis), Correlational (survey, archival data-mining), Experimental vs. Quasi-experimental.

What are some Psychophysiological methods

Genital arousal measures, quantitative sensory testing (QST), brain imaging (fMRI).

What’s the difference between incidence and prevalence?

Incidence = new cases in a time period

→ “How many people got HIV this year?”

Prevalence = all existing cases at a point in time

→ “How many people have HIV right now?”

Easy trick: Prevalence = the whole Pool of cases. Incidence = Incoming new ones.

What’s the main strength of experiments over other research designs?

Experiments are the only design that can show cause and effect.

What were two criticisms of Kinsey’s research?

1. Non-random samples — his participants weren’t randomly selected, so results can’t really represent everyone

2. Oversampled white people — not diverse enough

3. Focused on behaviour, not identity — measured what people did sexually, not how they actually experienced their sexuality

Just need to remember any 2 of those 3 for the exam!

Masters and Johnson used an empirical approach — what does that mean?

Empirical means relying on direct observation and experimentation rather than theory alone. So M&J actually watched and measured sexual responses in a lab — they didn’t just ask people about it or theorize.

What’s a weakness shared by both interviews AND surveys?

Responder bias — people don’t answer honestly

• Memory bias — people can’t accurately remember past experiences

What are the three psychophysiological approaches used in sex research

case study examines one single individual, event, or group in great detail over a long period of time (longitudinal).

The weaknesses are:

• Poor generalizability — you can’t apply findings from one person to everyone

• Interpretation bias — the researcher’s own views can color the findings

• No control group — can’t really compare to anything

What is the female external genitals (vulva)

Mons pubis, clitoris (mostly internal, pleasure-only), labia majora/minora, vulvar vestibule, urethral opening, vaginal opening, hymen

What are the female internal organs

Vagina (3 layers), Bartholin glands, Skene’s glands (possible “female prostate,” linked to G-spot), G-spot, cervix + uterus (3 layers: endometrium, myometrium, perimetrium), ovaries, fallopian tubes

What are male external organs

Penis (3 sections: root, shaft, glans; 3 cylinders: 2 corpora cavernosa + corpus spongiosum), scrotum (dartos muscle)

What are male internal organs

Testes → epididymis → vas deferens → seminal vesicles → prostate → Cowper’s glands → urethra. Semen = ~70% seminal vesicle fluid + prostate secretions. Sperm need capacitation before fertilizing an egg.

What is the erogenous zone

Body area that causes sexual arousal when touched

What are gonads

Glands producing gametes eg ovaries and testes

What is myotonia

Increased muscle tension in the genital during arousal

What is capacitation

removal of plasma membrane overlying sperm, allowing it to bind to an egg (happens over several hours in the female genital tract)

What is spermatogenesis

Sperm production

What is the refractory period

Time after a male orgasms in which he cannot orgasm again

What is pre-ejaculate

clear fluid released during arousal; can contain active sperm

What is the mon pubis

Pad of tissue over meeting of pubic bones.

What is the purpose of pubic hair

pheromonal signalling, friction protection, signals sexual maturity

What are the internal parts of the clitorous

glans, corpus cavernosum, crus clitoris, vestibular bulb

What is the labia majora

Outerlips covered with pubic hair has many nerves important for arousal and protects the clitorous, labia minora and chain al opening

What is the labia minora

Inner lips important for sexual stimulations dn arousal. Such thing as a labiaplasty to alter appearance

What is the vulvar vestibule

Area witching labia minora has the urethral and vaginal opening. Provoked vestibulodynia = condition where any touch to this area is painful

What is the hymen

Thin membrane partially covering vaginal opening. Can tear incorrectly associated wth virginity in some cultures

What are the 3 layers of the vagina

Outermost (vaginal mucosa) – similar to inside of mouth, soft/moist, slightly acidic, creates lubrication during arousal

2. Middle (muscular) – tightens during arousal, contracts rhythmically during orgasm

3. Deepest (fibrous) – resists expansion, keeps vagina in place

What are the bartholin gland

Unknown function on either side of vagina may contribute to ubrication

What are skenes gland

Pair of glands on the front wall of the vagina

• Ducts empty into the urethra

• Considered the possible “female prostate” (based on anatomy + secretions)

• Believed to contribute to G-spot sensitivity

What is the cervix

Lower third of uterus top of vagina, secretes mucus

What are the uterus and its layers

Function = hold and nourish a fetus during pregnancy

• Three layers:

1. Endometrium – innermost lining, shed during menstruation

2. Myometrium – muscular layer, stretches for a fetus

3. Perimetrium – deepest, thin smooth membrane

What is a Pap test

detects abnormal cells) replaced by cervical screening test (detects high-risk HPV strains 16 & 18, starts at age 25, every 5 years if normal)

What are ovaries

Two ovaries, one on each side of the uterus

• Endocrine glands producing estrogens and progestins

• Contain ova (eggs) — females born with ~2 million

• Ovulation alternates between ovaries

What are fallopian tubes

Carry ova from ovaries to uterus

• 10 cm long, one on each side

• Fertilization usually occurs in the infundibulum (the end closest to the ovary)

• Fimbriae are the finger-like projections at the end

What are the penic cylinders

Corpora cavernosa (x2) – fill with blood during erection, fibrous sleeve stiffens penis

2. Corpus spongiosum (x1) – stays soft during erection; urethra runs through it

Penis average

Average flaccid length: 9.2 cm; erect: 13.1 cm

• Average erection angle: 10° above horizontal when standing

What is circumscision

Surgical removal of the foreskin

• ~30% of men globally are circumcised

• Often done for religious reasons (Jewish, Muslim faiths)

• Pros: fewer UTIs, reduced STI risk (including HIV), prevents phimosis, lower penile cancer risk

• Cons: procedural risks (infection, hemorrhage, mutilation), heightened pain response to vaccinations

What is the scrotum

Loose pouch of skin hanging under the penis

• Contains the testes

• Two layers:

• Outer: skin with hair

• Inner: dartos muscle (involuntary) — contracts with cold to move testes closer to body

• Also has cremaster muscle — lifts testes to help regulate temperature for sperm health

Wha is the testes

Inside the scrotum

• Function: produce sperm + secrete androgens (testosterone)

• Spermatic cord suspends each testis; contains vas deferens, blood vessels, nerves

Seminiferous Tubules

Packed inside the testes

• Site of spermatogenesis (sperm production and storage)

• Interstitial cells between tubules produce testosterone directly into the bloodstream

Epididymis- male

Covers part of each testicle

• Matures and stores sperm

• Three parts: head, body, tail

Vas Deferens

Carries sperm from epididymis to the prostate/urethra

• Part of the spermatic cord

Seminal Vesicles

Two tubular glands next to prostate, near ends of vas deferens

• Produce sugary, alkaline fluid = ~70% of ejaculate

Prostate Gland

Lies directly below the bladder

• Secretes thin, milky, alkaline fluid

• Alkalinity protects sperm from acidity of the urethra and vagina

• Most common malignancy in men

Cowper’s Glands

Two pea-sized glands on either side of the urethra, below the prostate

• Secrete pre-ejaculate (pre-cum) — clear, alkaline, slippery

• Prepares the urethra for ejaculate

The vagina lengthens during arousal. If true, by how much?

the vagina lengthens during arousal by about 5–7.5 cm. At rest it measures 7.5–12.5 cm

MASTERS & JOHNSON’S SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE (1966)

The two underlying physical processes driving ALL phases:

• Vasocongestion — blood pooling/swelling in genitals

• Myotonia — increased muscle tension throughout the bodyPhase 1 — Excitement:

• Triggered by physical or psychological stimulation

• Males: penile erection begins, scrotum partially elevates

• Females: vaginal lubrication appears, clitoris enlarges, labia swell, uterus elevates slightly

Phase 2 — Plateau:

• Arousal levels off but sexual tension dramatically surges

• Males: color deepens in glans, testes increase in size, scrotum fully elevates, Cowper’s glands secrete pre-cum, prostate enlarges

• Females: clitoris retracts under hood, vagina expands, orgasmic platform forms (outer third of vagina swells), labia change color, uterus elevates further

Phase 3 — Orgasm:

• Briefest phase

• Males: muscle spasms, seminal vesicles and prostate contract, contractions push semen through urethra, internal bladder sphincter closes (prevents urine mixing with semen), rectal sphincter contracts

• Females: rhythmic contractions in the orgasmic platform and uterus, rectal sphincter contracts

• Brain activity is very similar between sexes during orgasm

Phase 4 — Resolution:

• Everything returns to unaroused state

• Males: erection disappears, testes descend, testicular congestion resolves

• Females: uterus lowers, vagina returns to normal size, orgasmic platform disappears

• Key difference: Males enter a refractory period (cannot orgasm again regardless of stimulation — length increases with age). Females have NO refractory period, which is why multiple orgasms are more accessible for them

• Many women also experience post-orgasmic clitoral hypersensitivity

KAPLAN’S THREE-STAGE MODEL

Simplified to: Desire → Excitement → Orgasm

• The big addition over Masters & Johnson: desire — a psychological/motivational state

• Recognized that sexual response isn’t purely physical — the mind matters

• Dropped “plateau” and “resolution” as distinct phases

BASSON’S MODEL OF FEMALE SEXUAL RESPONSE

circular model, not linear

• Key insight: women often enter sexual activity from a place of sexual neutrality — not spontaneous desire

• They may choose sex for non-sexual reasons: emotional closeness, intimacy, well-being, avoiding negative effects of sexual avoidance

• Once they engage with sexual stimuli in an appropriate context, subjective arousal and responsive desire develop

• This leads to sexual satisfaction, which reinforces the non-sexual rewards, completing the cycle

• Main takeaway: desire does not have to precede sex — it can emerge during it

AGE-RELATED CHANGES

Arousal takes longer overall

• Vaginal lubrication is slower and reduced

• Erections take longer and require more stimulation, and are less firm

• Declining testosterone contributes to these changes

• Intensity of all sexual response phases decreases