306 exam 3

The self in middle childhood (Erikson)

• INDUSTRY VS INFERIORITY: ABILITY TO SUCCEED

• According to Erikson, school-aged children face the psychosocial crisis of industry vs inferiority

  • Success at culturally valued tasks influences children's feelings of competence and curiosity as well as their motivation to persist and succeed in all the contexts in which they are embedded

  • When children are unable to succeed when they receive consistently negative feedback, they may lose confidence in their ability to succeed and be productive at valued tasks

• Children's sense of industry influences their self-concept, self-esteem, and readiness to face the physical, cognitive, and social challenges of middle childhood

self-concept in middle childhood

• NUANCED

• In middle childhood, self-concept shifts from concrete descriptions of behavior to trait-like psychological constructs

• Positivity bias: over estimating themselves in young children

• Compared to younger children who tend to describe themselves in all or none terms, older children include both positive and negative traits in their self-descriptions

  • Older children come to understand that their traits can vary with the context and that a person can be nice or mean, depending on the situation

• Children's academic self-concept such as beliefs about math and reading abilities, predicts their academic achievement into adolescence

self-esteem in middle childhood

• INCREASING, FEEDBACK BALANCE, ABILITIES, PARENTS FOSTER

• Self-esteem tends to increase from preschool throughout elementary school, from age 4-11 and is associated with academic achievement

  • School-aged children's self-esteem becomes more realistic

• Self-esteem is influenced by children's ability to balance feedback from themselves and others

• School-aged children's self-evaluations are more closely linked to their abilities, beliefs, and behavior

  • Children's self-esteem also shapes their interests

• Positive parent-child interactions and a secure attachment to parents predict a positive sense of self-esteem throughout childhood

• As in early childhood, school-aged children's self-esteem is best fostered within the context of warm and accepting parent-child interactions, parental encouragement for realistic and meaningful goals, and praise that is connected to children's performance

  • Don’t want to over praise

achievement motivation and attribution in middle childhood

• MOTIVATION TO CONTINUE, BLAME OF OUTCOME

• Achievement motivation is the willingness to persist at challenging tasks and meet high standards of accomplishment

• Children's beliefs about the causes of their performance, whether success or failure, are known as achievement attributions

  • Some children gravitate toward internal attributions, emphasizing their own role in the outcome, such as skills, ability, and effort

  • Other attribute their performance to external attributions, causes that cannot be controlled, such as luck or circumstances

mindset in middle childhood

• ABILITY TO CHANGE ABILITIES/CHARACTERISTICS

• Children vary in their mindsets or the degree to which they believe their abilities and characteristics can be modified

  • Children with a growth mindset view their skills and characteristics as changeable and believe they can grow and improve

  • Those with a fixed mindset believe their skills and characteristics cannot be changed

goals in middle childhood

• LEARNING(PROCESS), PERFORMANCE(FIXED)

• Children who set learning goals tend to focus on the process of learning and developing their abilities

  • This goal orientation is often accompanied by a growth mindset and openness to change

  • Learning goals support achievement motivation because they prioritize the process of developing abilities and using feedback to improve

• Children who believe their abilities are fixed tend to focus on performance goals, which are concerned with demonstrating their ability and receiving positive feedback

mastery orientation and helpless orientation in middle childhood

• MASTERY(GROWTH/PROCESS), HELPLESS(FIXED/EXTERNAL BLAME)

• Those who attribute their performance to internal factors, have a growth mindset and focus on learning goals exhibit a mastery orientation

  • They believe that success results from hard work and that failures can be controlled through factors such as effort

• Children with an external attribution style, a fixed mindset, and a focus on performance goals by exhibit a helpless orientation

  • They believe that they cannot succeed given their own ability, whereas they attribute their successes to external factors such as luck or an easy test

• A mastery orientation shown to predict subsequent classroom engagement, help seeking, higher academic achievement

• Achievement motivation can be improved, mindset can be changed, and a mastery orientation can be fostered through sensitive interactions with others

parents on achievment motivation in middle childhood

• PARENT BELIEFS, FEEDBACK, AND RESOURCES

• Parents influence children's achievement motivation through their beliefs and attitudes about ability, success, and failure

  • Parents with growth mindset more likely to have kids with growth mindset

• Warm and supportive parenting can boost children's self-esteem and help them recognize their abilities

  • Harsh criticism harms child's potential abilities

• The type of feedback adults provide plays a large role in children's beliefs about their abilities

  • Praising efforts

  • Praise the process

  • Tell them you are proud of them and they should be proud of self

• SES influences children's motivation through the availability of opportunities and resources and parents' behavior

  • Don’t have time to scaffold/try again

• Growth mindset through to be beneficial, but some findings show only a positively predicted achievement among students from more advantaged families and not among those from less advantaged

  • Resource limited constraints

teachers on achievement motivation in middle childhood

• TEACHERS PERSONAL RELATIONSHIP-→ VIEW OF SELF/SCHOOL

• Teachers who form close, warm relationships with students promote higher levels of academic motivation and engagement

  • Indications of performance

  • Introduce opportunity that they didn't have at home

  • Failure to effort demotivates kids-impacts their view on school

• Effects are bidirectional

peers on achievment motivation in middle childhood

• IMPACTS MOTIVATION, INSPIRE GROWTH

• The peer group influences achievement motivation through children's beliefs about their friends' behavior and attitudes

• Perceived acceptance by peers is also positively associated with achievement motivation

gender differences across domains in middle childhood

Physical abilities-GROWTH SIMILAR, DIFFERENCES DUE TO SOCIALIZATION

• Throughout childhood, girls and boys are comparable in weight and height and show similar growth rates

  • Girls with better fine motor skills and balance, similarly on gross motor, except upper body

    • Differences usually because of socialization

  • Boys tend to be more physically active than girls-further socialized

Cognitive abilities- GIRLS(READING/VERBAL), BOYS(SPATIAL)→ SOCIALIZATION

• In all industrialized countries, girls show a slight advantage in reading comprehension and verbal fluency tasks through adolescence, likely related to socialization

• From infancy, boys tend to outperform girls on one specific types of spatial reasoning: mental rotation

  • Types of toys

Socioemotional abilities- GIRLS(EMOTIONAL MATURITY), BOYS(AGGRESSION)→ SOCIALIZED

• From infancy, girls tend to be better at identifying, managing, and expressing their emotions than boys

  • Socialized

  • Parents directly or indirectly telling children what is appropriate to express

• Physical aggression peaks in early childhood, but boys tend to exhibit more physical aggression than girls at all ages

  • Rewarded for aggression: sports

  • Relational aggression continues

friendship in middle childhood

• RECIPROCAL RELATIONSHIP, DIFFERENTIATING CLOSENESS, HOMOGENOUS, LACK OF→ NEGATIVE IMPACTS

• In middle childhood, friendship is a reciprocal relationship in which children are responsive to each other's needs and trust each other

  • Violations of trust, such as divulging secrets, breaking promises, and not helping a friend in need, can break up a friendship

• School-age children differentiate among best friends, good friends, and casual friends, depending on how much time they spend together and how much they share

  • Close supportive friendships are associated with positive adjustment and well-being

• Fair-weather cooperation

  •  a friend is someone who re

• School-age children choose friends who share interests, play preferences, personality characteristics, cognitive ability, and intelligence

  • Friends also tend to share demographics

• Friendships often remains stable from middle childhood into adolescence

• Friendships that take place in multiple contexts, such as school, neighborhood, and extracurricular contexts, are more likely to endure than those that occur in only one context

• Friendship instability and loss, or dissolution, is associated with problems with depression, loneliness, guilt, anger, anxiety, and acting out

• Many children replace 'lost' friendships with 'new' friendships

• Children without friends tend to report feeling lonelier than their peers, especially when they desire friends

  • Lacking social skills, theory of mind, perspective taking

• Some children simply prefer solitude; their preference for alone time is not driven by anxiety or fear

peer acceptance, popularity, and rejection in middle childhood

• LEVEL OF PEER ACCEPTANCE → POPULAR(LIKED OR DISLIKED, GOOD AT INTERACTION) OR REJECTED(DISLIKED, POOR INTERACTION SKILLS, WITHDRAWN/AGGRESSIVE)

• Peer acceptance, the degree to which peers view a child as a worthy social partner, becomes important in middle childhood

• Children who are exceptionally well-liked by their peers are considered popular

  • Children who excel at social interaction tend to continue doing so, their peers reciprocate and the positive effects on peer relationships increase

• Some popular children are disliked

  • These children and adolescents have high peer status yet show antisocial and aggressive behavior toward pursing goals

• Children who experience peer rejections tend to be disliked and shunned by peers

  • Children with poor communication, emotional control, social info processing skills risk peer rejection

• Rejected children's behavior tends to be characterized by either withdrawn or aggression

  • Withdrawn rejected children tend to isolate themselves from peers, rarely initiate contact with peers, and speak less frequently than their peers

  • Aggressive rejected children are confrontational, hostile, impulsive, hyperactive

  • Both misinterpreting others intentions, not good listeners

  • Associated with both short and long term negative outcomes

bullying in middle childhood

• HARMING OTHERS-BULLYS(IMPULSIVE/AGGRESSIVE, PARENT INFLUENCE), BULLIED(DIFFERENT, QUIET, CRITICAL PARENTING, ISOLATED)

• Bullying: occurs when a child or adolescent repeatedly attempts to harm another through physical, verbal, or social means

• Children who bully

  • Boys and girls who engage in bullying tend to be impulsive and aggressive

    • Boys more physical and target girls and boys

    • Girls more relational and target girls

  • Bullying motivated by the desire to attain and maintain high, social status and a powerful, dominant position in the peer group

  • Parental behavior significantly influences children's bullying

• Children who are bullied

  • Children who are bullied are often perceived as different from their peers, as quieter, inhibited, and cautious than other children

  • Victims of bullying often report experiencing intrusive, overprotective, and critical parenting which can increase their vulnerability to bullying

  • In response to bullying, many children may choose to avoid contact, such as by not attending school and refusing to go to certain places

parent child relationship in middle childhood

• EVOLVING, CHILD INDEPENDENCE, REASON BASED/NEGATIVE DISCIPLINE

• As children progress through middle childhood, they become increasingly independent and spend less time with their parents

• The parent-child relationship evolve as parents adjust their parenting styles to match their children's growing ability to reason and desire for independence

• Discipline changes

  • Physical punishment decreases

  • Removing things that kids want

• Discipline tends to rely more on reasoning and inductive strategies

• Parenting and parent-child relationships show continuity over childhood

  • Poor parent-child relationships are associated with poor adjustment, antisocial activity, and delinquency in adolescence

  • As secure attachment to parents is associated with positive adjustment

siblings in middle childhood

• INCREASED RIVALRY(PARENT FUELED), CAN MAKE VULNERABLE TO PEER VICTIMIZATION

• Sibling rivalry tends to intensify in middle childhood

  • Parents inspiring

• Sibling rivalry may harm the sibling relationship

• Conflict, even physical fights is common among siblings

  • Sibling abuse

• Children who experience chronic victimization by siblings are at higher risk for peer victimization

only children in middle childhood

• POSITIVE ADJUSTMENT/ACHIEVEMENT, INFO FROM CHINA

• Only children tend to show positive adjustment, have high self-esteem and be high achievers

• Much of what we known about only children comes from research in China, were the one-child policy determine family size for over three decades

  • Cultural preferences for boys contributed to sex-selective abortions and female infanticide, leading to a gender imbalance

  • These findings are influenced by the unique sociocultural and historical context

reading:

(Ellis) beyond risk and protective factors: an adaption based appraoch to resilience

• SWITCHING TO ADAPTATION APPROACH, RECOGNIZE UNIQUE STRATEGIES, DIFFERENT ENVRIONMENTS PROMOTE DIFFERENET SKILLS, EDUCATIONAL APPROACH THAT MATCHES EXPERIENCES

• The deficit model: the prevailing approach

  • Assumes: children from harsh backgrounds are 'broken' and need fixing

  • Goal: to make them think and act more like children from low-risk backgrounds

• Adaptation based approach

  • two hypothesis

    • Specialization: enhanced abilities for solving problems in harsh environments

    • Sensitization: these abilities manifest primarily under stressful conditions

• Evidence from animals

  • Birds

    • Enhanced good caching and memory for stored food

    • Faster flight speeds and better predator avoidance

    • More flexible social learning strategies

  • Rodents

    • Enhanced stimulus- response learning

    • Faster fear conditioning

    • Better performance under threat conditions

    • Earlier social development

• Human research

  • Enhanced detection of threats (faster recognition of anger/fear)

  • Better recall of negative events and emotional information

  • Enhanced empathic accuracy and emotion recognition

  • More flexible attention-shifting

  • Enhanced 'working memory' for tracking novel information

  • Better procedural learning under stress

  • Enhanced reward-oriented problem solving

• successful intelligence : ability to achieve goals within one’s cultural context

• adapting educational approaches to match skills

  • content, info delivery, intstructional practices

formal operational reasoning in adolescence

• THINK ABSTRACTLY, METATHINKING, GENERATE AND TEST HYPOTHESES

• Formal operational reasoning, the final stage of Piaget's cog developmental theory emerges in early adolescence at about age 11

• Formal operational reasoning entails the ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically

• Adolescents in the formal operational stage reason about ideas, possibilities that do not exist in reality and may have no tangible substance, such as whether it is possible to love equitably

• Adolescents become capable of reasoning about their own thinking and even wondering about their existence

• Formal operational thought enables adolescents to engage in hypothetical-deductive reasoning, or the ability to consider problems, generate and systematically test hypotheses, and draw conclusions

• Adolescents who display formal operational reasoning develop hypotheses that they systematically test and evaluate

  • Children who reason at the prior stage, the concrete stage do not proceed systematically and fail to test each variable independently

info processing theory in adolescence

• GRADUAL PROCESS, IMPROVEMENTS IN PROCESSING→ THINK FASTER AND MORE COMPLEX → MULTI-TASK

• Info processing theorist propose a more gradual process of cognitive change

• From the perspective of information processing theory, improvements in information processing capacities enable adolescents to think faster, more efficiently, and complexly than ever before

• Can juggle multiple things in their head at one time

  • Multi-task

attention in adolescence

• IMPROVEMENTS in selective attention

• Improvements in working memory

working memory and executive function in adolescence

• WORKING MEMORY IMPROVMENTS (BRAIN), GRADUAL INHIBITORY CONTROL GAINS

• Developments in working memory are driven by brain changes, which enables individuals to deploy their attention and memory to solve problems effectively

  • Social problems as well

• Experience contributes to cognitive advances

  • Have more knowledge

• Not adult like levels until end of adolescents, improving into young adult hood life

• Inhibitory control is the ability to control and stop responding to a stimulus, and shows gradual but substantial gains in adolescents through emerging adulthood

  • Consequences get more serious with adolescence

• Some research suggest that the experience of early life stress is associated with impaired inhibition in adolescence

divided attention and multitasking in adolescence

• TWO THINGS AT ONCE- TASK SWITCHING NOT MULTI-TASKING(POORER PERFORMANCE)

• Divided attention enables adolescents to monitor two things at once

  • Depends on individual motivations

• Cog scientists argue that what appears to be multitasking is actually task-switching, the brain alternating back and forth between tasks

• Media multitasking, like using social media while doing something else, is associated with poorer academic performance

• Individual differences in attention and self-regulation affects multitasking performance

processing speed in adolescence

• QUICKER → PFC WITH MORE WHITE MATTER

• Older adolescents can process information to solve problems more quickly than younger adolescents, who are quicker than children

• From childhood into adolescence, the structure of the PFC changes, with decreases in gray matter and increases in white matter, and cognition becomes markedly more efficient

• Automaticity refers to when cognitive processes become automatic, requiring less effort and fewer mental resources, such as attention and working memory, and are executed more quickly

metacognition in adolescence

• THINKING ABOUT THINKING→ BETTER AT MANIPULATING THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

• Adolescents not only have better thinking than children but they are more aware of their ideas and thought processes, can reflect on thinking itself-metacognition

• With advances in metacognition, adolescents become more planful about their cognitive system, enabling them to better able to take in, manipulate, and store info

• Adolescent ability to apply metacognition in real-world settings continue to develop into late adolescence and early adulthood

• Metacognition enables adolescents to approach problems in new and innovative ways

perspective taking in adolescence

• OTHER PEOPLE’S PERSPECTIVES, SOCIAL/MUTUAL/SOCIETAL, POSITIVE RELATIONS AND BEHAVIOR

• Cog advances have special implications for social cognition, how adolescents think about people, social situations, and relationships

• Social perspective taking is the ability to experience or imagine other peoples perspective, with implications for social relationships

• Social perspective taking ability follows a developmental path from extreme egocentrism in early childhood to mature perspective taking ability in late adolescence

• Mutal perspective taking is the understanding that adolescents take other people's point of view simultaneously as others attempt to take their own point of view

• Societal perspective taking emerges, and adolescents recognize that the social environment includes the larger society, influences people's perspective and beliefs

• Working memory, cog control, is associated with perspective taking ability

• Perspective taking ability predicts prosocial behavior, peer relations, friendship, and popularity

• Like abstract thought and theory of mind, perspective taking abilities that enable adolescents to experience or imagine another person's feelings emerge gradually

egocentrism in adolescence

• INCREASING EGOCENTRISM-IMAGINARY AUDIENCE/PERSONAL FABLE

• Adolescents often struggle to distinguish their own perspectives from those of others when considering themselves

  • They exhibit adolescent egocentrism, a perspective taking error characterized by:

    • Imaginary audience

      • Fuels concerns with appearance

      • Take things personally

      • Influencer culture making worse

    • Personal fable

      • Thinking you are special and invincible

      • Usually gets checked by some event

decision making in adolescence

• DEVELOPING SLOWLY, FOCUS ON REWARD, LEARN THROUGH EXPERIENCE

• Adolescents approach thinking and decision making more complexly than children, but their thinking is still developing

• When faced with challenging situations, adolescents tend to reason more poorly than adults

  • Hard time with long term thinking

• Adolescents sensitivity to rewards means that they tend to place more importance on the potential benefits of decisions than on the potential costs or risks as adults

• As they gain more experience/explore in decisions about risk taking, they learn about their skills, risk taking tends to decline

• Not all risk taking is harmful

• But…adolescents often need help honing their decision making

moral reasoning in adolescence

• PROGRESSING TO POSTCONVENTIONAL-RESPECT FOR INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS

• Adolescents become capable of demonstrating the most advanced moral thinking, characterized by postconventional moral reasoning and autonomous decision making based on moral principles that value respect for individual rights above all else

  • Postconventional moral thinkers recognize that their self-chosen principles of fairness and justice may sometimes conflict with the law

changes in moral reasoning in adolescence

• KOHLBERG STAGES, REASON FOR DECISION, RESEARCH DONE ON BOYS

• Kohlberg measured moral reasoning across developmental periods

  • Participants explain their decisions and underlying reasoning which reveal developmental shifts

  • Most of it was done with boys

  • Examining how you make decisions about fairness etc.

    • Explaining why decision was made

• Preconventional(avoid punishment/reward)-> conventional(external ethics) -> postconventional(social contract, nuanced view)

social interaction and moral reasoning in adolescence

• SOCIAL IMPACT, EXPOSED TO MANY PERSEPCTIVES, CHALLENGING OWN THINKING

• Moral development is influenced by social interaction

• Reasoning develops when individuals have opportunities to engage in mutual perspective taking and consider different points of view

• Encountering reasoning that is slightly more complex than their own, they may be prompted to reconsider their thinking and advance their reasoning

  • Scaffold their thinking

gender and moral reasoning in adolescence

• SOCIALIZED DIFFERENCES, GIRLS (CARE ORIENTATION/AVOID HARM)

• Boys typically chose stage 4 reasoning where as women only reached stage 3

  • What Kohlberg thought

• Care orientation is characterized by empathy, a desire to maintain relationships, and a responsibility not to cause harm

  • Done more frequently than girls

• Importantly, people of all genders display similar reasoning that combines concerns of justice with those of care, and any sex differences are small

culture and moral reasoning in adolescence

• INDIVIDUALIST(RIGHTS/JUSTICE BASED) VS COLLECTIVIST(COMMUNITY, CARE BASED)CULTURES

• Cross cultural studies of Kohlberg's theory who that while the sequence appears in all cultures post conventional reasoning is rarely observed in non-western cultures

• Western cultures tend to emphasize individual rights and justice-based reasoning

• Collectivist cultures prioritize obligations to others and the community, reflecting care-based reasoning focused on interdependence and social harmony

  • In collectivist cultures, stage 3 may reflect mature moral thinking

civic development in adolescence

• DEVELOPING POLITICAL/COMMUNITY AWARENESS

• Civic development refers to the skills, knowledge, and motivation to participate in community and political life

• Civic engagement includes a wide range of activities, from volunteering and community service to political expression and advocacy, such as campaigning, contacting representatives, protesting, and voting

  • Helps with self-esteem etc., giving sense of purpose and agency

• Virtue signaling

critical consciousness in adolescence

• DEVELOPING CRITICAL LOOK AT SYSTEMS→ UNDERSTANDING/ACTION

• Critical consciousness refers to the process of coming to understand, think about, and take action against systems

• Critical reflection is the ability to identify and reason about inequality and form of systematic social oppression, including stereotypes, biases, and discrimination

• Motivation can lead to critical action, the activities that people engage in to challenge social inequalities, such as petitioning, protesting, volunteering, and civic participation

stage environment fit in adolescence

• MATCHING DEVELOPMENTAL NEEDS AND ENVIRONMENT, PROMOTES WELL-BEING

• Adolescents experience difficulties when there is a poor stage-environment fit or match between developmental needs and what the school environment affords in its organization and characteristics

• Adolescents who school experiences align with their preferences, suggesting a good stage environment fit, who positive well-being

teachers, parents, peers, school in adolescence

• ALL IMPACT ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT AND ADJUSTMENT, POOR RELATIONS→NEGATIVE OUTCOMES, QUALITY INSTRUCTION, STABLE FRIENDS, SUPPORTIVE PARENTS

• teachers

  • Increasing academic demands/responsibilities to handle independently

  • Mismatch with teacher can lead to demotivation, poor performance, drop out

• Parents

  • Vulnerable when they lack socioemotional/cognitive skills, stemming from lack of support from parents

  • Authoritative parenting typically seen as best for supporting adjustments

    • Being involved

  • Family dinners

    • Time to catch challenges of child

• Peers

  • Maintaining stable friends while building new is really important

  • Stable relationships lead to higher academic success and receive emotional support

  • Reciprocal

    • Learn that relationships are transactional

• Schools

  • While the curriculum outlines what students will learn, quality instruction is at the heart of effective education

  • Effective schools foster cognitive skills, personalized learning, and strong positive connections between adults and students

growth spurt in adolescence

• RAPID GROWTH(FAT, MUSCLE, BONE, CARDIO)

• The adolescent growth spurt is a rapid gain in height and weight

  • Girls around age 10, boys 12

• On average, lasts about 2 years, but growth in height continues at a more gradual pace(for another 4 years)

  • Ends about age 16 in girls, 18 in boys

• What happens during growth spurts?

  • Girls gain more fat overall, boys gain more muscle-especially upper body

  • Bone density increases

  • Respiratory and cardiovascular systems mature

    • Allows more effective and efficient movement

puberty in adolescence

• BIOLOGICAL MATRUATION, SEX HORMONE RELEASE(ESTROGEN/TESTOSTERONE)

• Puberty is the biological transition to adulthood, in which adolescents mature physically and become capable of reproduction

• Ignition?

  • The brain -> the endocrine system to increase the release of sex hormones into the bloodstream

• Levels of testosterone and estrogen increase

• Pubertal tempo

  • How fast or slow are you progressing

  • Average 5-6 years

• Age 8-9 in girls the process has started

secondary sex characteristics in adolescence

• NON-REPRODUCTIVE PHYSICAL MATURATION

• Secondary sex characteristic are body changes that indicate physical maturation but are not directly related to fertility

• They include breast development, deepening voice, growth of facial and body hair, and acne

• Oil and sweat glands become more active, leading to body odor and acne

primary sex characteristics in adolescence

• REPRODUCTIVE MATURATION, MENARCHE, SPERMARCHE, CATASTROPHIZE

• The maturation of the primary sex characteristics, the reproductive organs is the most important developmental change that occurs during puberty

  • Females: ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina

  • Males: penis, testes, scrotum, seminal vesicles, prostate glands

• In girls, sexual maturity occurs toward the end of puberty with menarche, the first menstruation

  • Menstruation refers to the monthly shedding of the uterine lining which has thickened in preparation for the possible implantation of a fertilized egg

• In north America, the average age of menarche is about 12.5

  • During first months after menarche, menstruation takes place without ovulation

• In males, the first primary sex characteristic to emerge is the growth of the testes, the glands that produce sperm

• About a year later, the penis and scrotum enlarge, and pubic hair, a secondary sex characteristics, appears

  • As the penis grows, the prostate gland and seminal vesicles begin to produce semen, the fluid that contains sperm

• Media can often catastrophize this process

  • Uptick in masturbation

  • Not talked about in non-judgmental way

• At about age 13, boys demonstrate a principal sign of sexual maturation, the first ejaculation, known as spermarche

  • Many boys experience spermarche in the form of nocturnal emissions, or wet dreams, involuntary ejaculation that are sometimes accompanied by erotic dreams

experiences of pubertal events in adolescence

• GIRLS WITH SOME KNOWLEDGE, LITTLE KNOWN ABOUT BOYS EXPERIENCE

• Most girls approaching menarche have some knowledge about it and are not afraid because they have been informed about puberty by health education classes and parents

  • A lot of body image issues arise

• Researchers know less about boys experience of puberty because the changes that boys go through lack easily observed markers, such as menarche

  • Boys who are aware of ejaculation beforehand are more likely to have positive reactions, such as feeling pleasure, happiness, and pride

early maturation in adolescence

• EARLY MATURATION POSES RISK, ESPECIALLY FOR GIRLS, BOYS GAIN POPULARITY

• Adolescents who mature early often look older than their age and may be treated more like older teens, which many find stressful

  • Around the world, early maturing boys and girls show higher rates of risky activity

  • Early maturing girls face the greatest risk of adjustment difficulties

    • Bullying in school

    • Unwanted sexual attention

  • Early maturation may pose social risks for girls

• Girls perception of early development are often only loosely related to their actual pubertal status, yet are often better predictor of girls age at first intercourse, sexual risk taking, substance use, depression, and anxiety than actual pubertal development

  • Some evidence that early boys are more popular

• In contrast with girls, early maturing boys tend to be athletic, popular, school leaders, and confident

  • They also show elevated risk for internalizing and externalizing symptoms, including depression, antisocial and aggressive behavior

• Early maturation may be especially challenging for adolescents of color, particularly girls, who tend to enter puberty earlier than their early-maturing white peers

• Race, ethnicity, and sex likely intersect to influence how adolescents navigate puberty and how pubertal timing affects their development

• Some of the challenges that early-maturing adolescents face stem from their tendency to seek out older peer how match their physical development more closely than their classmates

• Although early matures may look older, they are not yet psychologically mature and are more vulnerable to harm from experiences that may be normative for older teens, such as sexual activity

late maturation in adolescence

• LATE MATURATION PROTECTIVE FOR GIRLS, RISK FOR BOYS

• Late maturation appear to have a protective effect on girls with regard to depression and problem behaviors

• During early adolescence, late-maturing boys may be less well-liked by their peers and may show anxiety and depression, but these effects tend to decline with physical maturation

genetics on adolescent development

• SET BOUNDARIES OF TIMING, OTHER CONTEXT FACTORS

• Puberty is complex and influenced by the interplay of many genes and contextual factors

• Heredity sets the boundaries of pubertal timing, the earliest and latest ages at which it can begin

  • But where individuals fall on that range whether they mature early of late is influenced more by their life experiences and the context in which they are embedded

nutrition and health on adolescent development

• BODY FAT LEVEL DETERMINING START OF MENARCHE

• Nutrition, the availability and consumption of calories that resulting weight gain determine the onset of puberty

  • Girls with greater body mass, especially those who are obese, tend to mature earlier than their peers

  • Girls who have a low percentage of body fat, whether from athletic training or severe dieting, often experience menarche late relative to other girls

• Extreme malnutrition can prevent the accumulation of sufficient fat stores needed to support pubertal development, delaying menarche in girls

changes in brain volume in adolescence

• SYNAPTOGENESIS AND PRUNING IN PFC ACCELERATING ABSTRACT THINKING AND REGULATION

• The hormonal changes of pubertal trigger a surge of neurological development, including a second burst of synaptogenesis,resulting in a rapid increase in connections among neurons

• Synaptic pruning also accelerates, reducing the volume of unmyelinated brain matter and gradually thinning and molding of the PFC, which is responsible for higher-order thinking and regulation

• The PFC and the regions of the frontal love are the last to fully mature

• Gray matter, which includes unmyelinated axons, dendrites, glial cells, blood vessels, increase with synaptogenesis, reaching its peak volume in early adolescence

• White matter, increases linearly from late childhood through adolescent and continues to develop into early adulthood

• Myelination occurs throughout the brain but is especially prominent in the PFC, speeding communications among neurons in brain regions responsible for complex abstract thinking and planning

brain structure in adolescence

• SOCIAL BRAIN DEVELOPMENT(ADOLESCENT BEHAVIOR/THINKING), BURST IN LIMBIC SYSTEM(HIPPOCAMPUS), INTERPRETTING EMOTIONS INCREASING, DUAL SYSTEMS MODEL OF MISMATCH

• The PFC has a network of interconnected brain structure involved in understanding and engaging in social relationships, collectively known as the social brain

  • These regions work together to help us navigate social interactions, understand others, and respond appropriately in social situations

• Pubertal hormones cause a burst of development in the limbic system, a set of subcortical brain structures involved in emotion

  • The hippocampus shows linear growth in adolescence, influencing learning, memory, and emotional regulation

• One of the most vivid examples of the developing social brain in action is how adolescents interpret emotional expressions

• Performance on tasks measuring sensitivity to facial expressions tend to improve steadily during the first decade of life but dips in early adolescence, then increases in late adolescence into emerging adulthood

  • Adolescents are better at processing peer faces than adult faces, particularly when those peers are at a similar stage of puberty

• Social brain plays a role in many hallmarks of adolescence, such as heightened self-consciousness, increase importance of peer relationships, and increased sensitivity to acceptance and rejection

• According to the dual systems model, this mismatch in developmental timing results in temporary imbalances in brain function

  • The imbalance can account for the many 'typical' adolescent behaviors

reward sensitivity in adolescence

• RISK TAKING COMMON DUE TO SEROTONIN AND DOPAMINE, ATTRACTION INCREASING

• Risk-taking is characteristic of adolescence, and the brain plays a large part

  • Balance of serotonin and dopamine

• Attraction is novelty and enhanced sensitivity to immediate rewards increases vulnerability to substance use and dangerous behaviors

experience and the adolescent brain

• PLASTIC BRAIN, ADVERSITY→STRESS REACTIVITY

• Plasticity refers to the ability of the brain to adapt its structure and function in response to environmental demands, experiences, and physiological changes

• A large body of research shows the early experiences with adversity, such as child maltreatment, poverty, terror, can alter brain development and increase children's and adolescents reactivity to stress

substance use in adolescence

• SENSITIVE TO SUBSTANCES → LASTING BRAIN CHANGES

• The adolescent brain is particularly sensitive to alcohol and substance use

  • Moderate and heavy drinking during adolescence is linked to accelerated declines in gray matter, disrupted white matter development, and altered neural activity, especially in younger teens

• Marijuana use during adolescence is also associated with lasting changes in brain structure and function, including altered connectivity in areas related to memory, reward and inhibitory control

  • Invincibility myth

physical activity in adolescence

• ACTIVITY SUPPORTS COGNITIVE FUNCTION, NOT MEETING REQUIREMENTS, NEED ENOUGH CALORIES

• Adolescents who regularly engage in physical activity show better cognitive function, including selective attention, processing speed, and a sense of control

• Only about 18%-23% of 12-17 year old adolescents meet the recommended 60 min of moderate to vigorous physical activity per day

• Longitudinal research with US adolescents has shown that the reduction in physical activity during adolescence are consistent across contextual settings, whether rural or urban, and across SES

sleep in adolescence

• SLEEPING LATER, IMPACTS COGNTIVE PROCESSES

• Delayed phase preference

  • Change in melatonin release

  • Going to sleep later

• Sleep significantly affects the neurological process that influence complex cognitive abilities

• Sleep schedules can be disrupted and have cascading effects

screen use in adolescence

• HEAVY USAGE, CAN IMPACT MENTAL HEALTH/STRESS

• Adolescents (13-18) spend about 8.5hrs/day on screen media

• Most recognize the benefit and power of screen media and devices

• About 85% of teens use social media

• Social media can be a source of stress

• Some studies link heavy social media use with depression, anxiety, or low self-esteem, while others find little to no relationship

health care acess in adolescence

• ECONOMIC DISPARITES

• Adolescents face many barriers to health care

• Despite increased access to health insurance, there are large economic disparities in heath care access

• There are also gaps in communication with health care providers

health literacy in adolescence

• CONCEPTION OF HEALTH/RESOURCES, NEED HELP

• Health literacy refers to the knowledge, skills, and attitudes about health and the ability to obtain, process, and understand health information to make appropriate helath decisiions

• Adolescents and adults may conceptualize health in different ways

  • Adolescents may not accurately assess their health

• Educators who seek to improve helath literacy are challenged with teaching adolescents the basics of health, how their bodies work and how to promote health, white balancing adolescents preferred individualized views of health

mortality in adolescence

• INCREASING, ACCIDENTAL, HOMOCIDE/SUICIDE(NOT EVENLY SPREAD)

• Increase in death during this period

• Accidental injuries still a main cause

• Homicide starts to rise-specifically gun violence

• Suicide is not evenly distributed across groups

anorexia nervosa and bulimia in adolescence

• EATING DISORDERS, ANOREXIA(STARVING), BULIMIA(BINGE AND PURGE), HEALTH THREATENING

• Individuals with anorexia nervosa starve themselves and may engage in extreme exercise to achieve thinness and maintain a weight substantially lower than expected for height and age

• Bulimia nervosa is characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating, consuming much more food than a similar person would eat in 2 hrs

• Both anorexia nervosa and bulimia threaten health in dynamic ways

  • Starvation and malnutrition affect ever part of the body

  • Side effects of bulimia can create other health risks

• Occur in all ethnic and SES groups and increasingly common in Asian and Arab cultures

• Disordered eating, such as fasting, diet pills, purging is more common in LGBTQ

binge eating disorder in adolescence

• MOST PREVALENT, INTERNALIZED STANDARDS, PAIN/OBSETITY ETC.

• Most prevalent eating disorder, occurring in up to 5% of adolescents

• Associated with internalizing then body ideals, body dissatisfaction, dieting, and negative affect

• Associated with chronic abdominal pain, diabetes, obesity , as well as anxiety, depression, and suicidality

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(APA) artificial intelligence and adolescent well-being

• DON’T REPEAT SOCIAL MEDIA IMPACT, RECOMMENDATIONS ABOUT LIMITATIONS, ENCOURAGING POSITIVE USE ETC.

• Generative AI: creating images, videos, text

• Interactive AI: facilitate human-AI interaction

• adolescence is a varied stage of critical brain development

• biases embedded

• recommendations

  • Ensure healthy boundaries with simulated human relationship

  • AI for adults should differ from AI for adolescents

  • Encourage uses of AI that can promote healthy development

  • Limit access to and engagement with harmful and inaccurate content

  • Accuracy of health information is especially important

  • Protect adolescents' data privacy

  • Protect likeness of youth

  • Empower parents and caregivers

  • Implement comprehensive AI literacy education

  • Prioritize and fund rigorous scientific investigation of AI's impact on adolescent development

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(Nagata) Adolescent health and generative AI, risk and benefits

• NOT JUST BLACK AND WHITE IDEAS, INACCURATE INFORMATION, RESOURCES, SOCIAL CONNECTION

• No empirical evidence exists on health effects of AI use

• Health information, cognition, critical thinking

  • Can provide inaccurate health information

  • Don’t have to use critical thinking skills

  • Reinforce cognitive biases

    • Tell kids to diet

  • Could free up more time for creative tasks

• Mental health

  • Could broaden access to resources

  • Provides misinformation and encourages harmful behavior

• Body image

  • Can produce unattainable images of bodies

• Social connection

  • Cannot replace human connection

  • Lacks physical presence and reinforcers users ideas

• Physical activity and sleep

  • Increases screen time

• Future research

  • Avoid just black and white ideas about pros and cons

  • Develop/research a nuanced view on AI use

self-concept in adolescence

• ABSTRACT CONCEPTION OF SELF(PEER DEPENDENT), SITUATIONAL CHANGE IN SELF/BEHAVIOR, IDEAL SELF(DEGREE OF MATCH)

• Adolescents use multiple abstract and complex labels to describe themselves

• Describe themselves in abstract terms

• Selection of peer groups impacted by self-concept

• Situational variability in behavior

  • Acting different around different groups

• As adolescents become able to consider the future, they identify an ideal self, who they aspire to be and the traits they hope to develop

  • Can be motivating, but also negative if they aspire to be something negative

• The degree of match between adolescents aspirations and their current characteristics predicts well-being

  • Lower well being if you are far away from idealized self and opposite

  • Very few people think they align well with idealized self

  • Peer acceptance, and support from people helps

self-esteem in adolescence

• EVALUATE THEMSELVES COMPLEXLY, BIDIRECTIONAL(OPPORTUNITIES), DECLINES THEN RISES, PARENT SUPPORT

• Adolescents describe and evaluate themselves overall, and in specific areas, such as academics, athletic ability, and social competence

  • Can also evaluate self in abstract ways-introspective

• Bidirectional- low esteem, don't put self in space to challenge self doubt

  • Self fulfilling avoidant behavior

• Longitudinal studies suggest that self-esteem tend to decline in early adolescence, reaching its lowest point at about 13 years of age, then rises through late adolescence and into emerging adulthood

  • Differs from other research

  • Could be due to individual changes in body, role etc.

• Puberty at same time of school transition as example

• Sense of self-worth influences their behavior and well-being

  • High self-esteem, more likely to reject advice you don't agree with

• Self-esteem is supported by positive parent-adolescent relationship

• Neglectful parenting, ongoing conflict, and critical or inconsistent feedback are linked to lower self-esteem

identity in adolescence

• DEVELOPING SENSE OF SELF, TASK THAT MUST BE RESOLVED

• An identity is psychosocial task of adolescence that involves developing a sense of self that is coherent and consistent over time

  • Task because: something you have to resolve

  • Types

    • Religious,

    • Sexual

    • Gender

    • Political

    • Vocational

    • Racial/ethnic

  • Pushing back on linear and sequential identity development theories

  • Identity development theories are not equal across all people/demographics

Marcia identity statuses in adolescence

• ACTIVELY QUESTIONING SELF THROUGH EXPERIENCE, STATUS=DEGREE OF EXPLORATION/COMMITMENT TO IDENTITY

• Adolescents actively questioning identity through lived experiences, and socialization

  • Others say even passive observation can play role

• Identity status refers to reflecting the degree to which you have explored possible selves and whether they have committed to specific beliefs and goals

  • Identity diffusion: starting point for everyone

    • Not exploring, not committing, not aware

  • Identity foreclosure:

    • Not engaged in exploration, but have adopted an identity based on others views

    • Fragile and abstract, with little meaning to you

  • Identity-moratorium

    • Exploring, but not committed to anything

    • Questioning

  • Identity achievement

    • Done exploration, landed on clear identity based on your personal choices

    • May not reach in adolescence

• Identity achievement reflects a sense of self through exploration, reflection, critical examination, and form a commitment to a particular set of ideas, values, and beliefs

• Young people typically shift among identity statues during adolescent , with differing patterns

• People form a sense of identity across many different domains or areas, and the pace and pattern of each domain can vary throughout development

erikson on identity in adolescence

• IDENTITY VS ROLE CONFUSION CRISIS, TRY ON AND EXPLORE NEW IDENTITIES(PSYCHOLOGICAL MORATORIUM)

• Every developmental period features a crisis that must be resolved

• Resolving crisis=positive development

• Identity vs role confusion

  • Spanned entirety of adolescence

  • Who am i? where am I going?

  • Trying on new identities, exploring them

  • Success= strong sense of identity, able to resist others that try to tell you do be something else

    • Develop fidelity

• Psychological moratorium

  • Putting current identity on hold while exploring other options, when done exploring adopt new identity and will be more well rounded

influences on identity development in adolescence

• PARENTING, FREEDOM TO EXPLORE, PEERS

• Just as authoritative parenting fosters the development of a positive self-concept and self-esteem, it is also associated with identity achievement

• Degree of freedom and support for exploration varies with context, such as family and SES status

• Peer also influence identity development because adolescents refer to them as a mirror to view their emerging identities and as an audience

outcomes of identity development in adolescence

• DIFFERENT STAGES WITH DIFFERENT FEELINGS, DEVELOPMENT→POSITIVE, PUZZLED IN EXPLORATION

• Identity achievement is associated with positive outcomes

  • Self-esteem, sense of self, control, high moral reasoning

• Young people in moratorium status often feel puzzled by the many choices before them

• Individuals in identity foreclosure status tend to take on a rigid and inflexible stance

• By late adolescence, identity diffusion is uncommon and has been considered indicative of maladjustment

ethnic-racial identity in adolescence

• BELONGINGNESS TO ETHNIC/RACIAL GROUP, MULTIRACIAL COMPLEX, PARENTS ROLE, EXPOSURE TO SIMILAR PEOPLE, MAKES AWARE OF DISCRIMINATION

• Ethnic and racial identity refers to a sense of membership to an ethnic or racial group, including the attitudes, values and cultures associated with that group within a specific sociohistorical context

• Multi racial youth development is much more complex

  • Lots of hard choices adolescents have to make

• Sense of belonging developing and becoming more committed to ethnicity/culture

• Parents play big role in scaffolding kids pride in culture

• People who interact with people of their same racial group more likely to feel good about their identity

• Identifying with an ethnic-racial group can make adolescents increasingly aware/sensitive to racial stereotypes and discrimination

• Racism and discrimination often prompt identity exploration, but are also associated with poor adjustment

gender intensification in adolescence

• PRESSURE TO ADHERE TO STEREOTYPES, DECLINES IN LATE ADOLESCENCE

• As gender becomes more salient, young adolescents may perceive greater pressure to adhere to gender stereotyped roles and behaviors, a phenomenon referred to as gender intensification

• Gender typing and gender stereotypes tend to rise in early adolescence through mid-adolescence and then decline

• By late adolescence, even young people who earlier displayed gender intensification tend to become more flexible in their thinking and adoption of gender roles

parent-adolescent conflict in adolescence

• RISING AT START, DIFFERING PERSPECTIVES (PRIVACY, CONTROL, DAY TO DAY,) RECIPROCAL, STARTS TO DECLINE

• Not inherently bad

• Rises at start of adolescence

• Realizing parents are making mistakes

• Parents and kids perceiving things quite differently

• Want control over day to day things

• Parents agree that they should have right to privacy and control, but often disagree over the things that adolescents are making decisions on

• Interactions are reciprocal

• Conflicts tend to peak in middle adolescence and decline from middle to late adolescence and emerging adulthood as young people become more independent and begin to better understand their parents as people

friendships in adolescence

• EXPECTATIONS FOR FRIENDS, GENDER DIFFERENCES IN GROUPS, CLIQUES(SHARED DEMOGRAPHICS, NORMS/VALUES) BECOME MIXED SEX(DATING BASIS), CROWDS (LARGE, LOOSELY ORGANIZED, COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT)

• Expect friends will be there for them, and keep secrets and not hurt them

• Boys tend to have larger peer groups with shared activities

  • Looking for companionship/fun, may not engage in deep conversations

• Girls tend to prefer smaller group, sharing thoughts/feelings, emotional support

  • Self-disclosure important

• Cliques and crowds

  • Tightly knit peer groups

  • Members of cliques share demographics/interests/attitudes

  • Norms and values that they share stem from interactions with others

  • Tend to be sex-segregated

  • Not inherently good or bad

  • By mid-adolescents, cliques become mixed sex and basis for dating

  • Late adolescents, mixed self cliques tend to spot up as adolescent enter college/work

  • Crowds are larger, loosely organized groups based on members perceived characteristics, interests, and reputation

    • Emergence of crowds tied to cog development, noticing things/people

peer conformity in adolescence

• HEAVY PRESSURE TO CONFORM TO PEERS, RISKY BEHAVIOR, BUILD RESISTANCE

• Peer pressure peaking in middle adolescence

• Predicting engagement in risky activity

• Young adolescence uniquely susceptible to risky behavior

• Individual differences/context inform susceptibility to peer pressure

• Resistance to peer influence grows over time

social media and peer interaction in adolescence

• HOLD POSITIVE ASSOCIATIONS, OPPORTUNITY FOR SOCIAL CONNECTION/IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT, CYBERBULLYING(CONSTANT, GIRLS, NEGATIVE MENTAL HEALTH)

• Tend to associate social media use with positive vibes

• More control with how to self select into groups

• Opportunities for identity development

  • Exposure to new things/ideas/people

• Mixed findings on positive/negative/negligible effects

  • Individual differences

• cyberbullying

  • Cyberbullying refers to bullying or repeated assaults through social media, text messaging, email, websites, mobile apps, chatrooms, online gaming sites, or any other electronic platform

  • Cyberbullying is asynchronous, so adolescents can never fully escape threat of victimization, powerlessness

  • Girls are more likely than boys to experience cyberbullying

  • Victimization by cyberbullying is consistently associated with depression, suicidal ideation, self-harm, and suicide attempts

dating in adolescence

• DATING BECOMING LESS COMMON, MORE OPPORTUINTY THROUGH TECHNOLOGY, MIXED GENDER PEER GROUPS, POSITIVE ADJUSTMENT, EMOTIONALY CHALLENGING

• Becoming less common in recent decades

  • Busier, school, etc.

• Drawing conclusions can be very challenging

• Technology makes connection easier

• In person to online relationships are concerning

  • Lacking physical connection/can't replace in-person contact

• Romantic relationships more common when older

• Developmental shifts

  • Often occur in a group context

  • Intermingling of mixed gender peer groups

  • Become more serious over time

  • Intense emotional bonds

    • Source of commitment

  • People with larger social networks dating more

• Psychological adjustment

  • In middle and late adolescence, romantic relationships are associated with positive adjustment

  • Although positive relationships with a romantic partner are associated with benefits, navigating relationships dynamics can be challenging for adolescents

  • Can interfere with other developmental tasks of adolescents

• Problematic social media use

  • Maladaptive use has negative effect

  • Girls and boys using in different ways

  • Using it as a source for fulfilling needs

delinquency in adolescence

• CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR, NEARLY EVERYONE INVOLVED, PERSISTENT→CONTINUES THROUGH LIFETIME AND PREDICT BEHAVIOR

• Delinquency is criminal behavior conducted by juveniles

• Nearly all young people engage in at least delinquent or illegal act, such as vandalism, without police contact

• Juvenile arrests have declined dramatically over the past four decades

• Racial differences

• Two paths

  • Life course persistent anti social behavior: repeated offenders, continues into life time

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parenting related to child and parental psychopathology

• BIDIRECTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PARENT AND CHILD, PSYCHOPATHOLOGY A FAMILY STRESSOR, DYSFUNCTIONAL PARENTING(PARENTAL NEGATIVITY, INEFFECTIVE DISCLIPLINE)

• Parents or children's psychiatric problems considered family stressor that affect the parent-child relationship

• Bidirectional relationship between parent and child

• Dimensions of parenting in socialization

  • Warmth

  • Control

• Depressed parents

  • Substantial impact to guide and nurture children

  • Janus-faced nature: angry behavior coexisted with withdrawn behavior

  • high self-focus

• schizophrenia

  • dramatic impact

  • poor parenting skills

  • stigma

• personality disorder

  • little research

  • hard to maintain relationships

• anxiety

  • Agoraphobic/avoidant puts kid at most risk

  • Substantial prevalence of anxiety in children

• Eating disorders

  • Parents struggle with inadequacy and serious parenting difficulties

  • More intrusive about food, and arguments over mealtime

• Substance abuse

  • Substance use is known to affect but don't totally know why

  • More so the problems associated with drug use and the mental disorders that come with it

• Children with anxiety

  • Parents show high aversive control

  • Parental negative control, rejection, inconsistency

  • Maternal negativism

  • Role of uncontrollability and unpredictability leads to child anxiety

• Conduct disordered children and parenting variables

  • Established associations

    • Parental negativity, inconsistency, disruptive disciple practice

    • Harsh discipline

    • Lack of warmth

    • Affectionless control

  • Heredity and vulnerability to psychosocial adversity

    • Conduct disorders often develop into delinquent and antisocial personality disorder

      • Genetic factors that predispose antisocial/ disruptive kids

    • Antisocial personality disorder and substance use common among parents with kids who have conduct problems

• Depressed children and parenting

  • Lack of studies

    • Especially on fathers role

  • Lack of warmth and support from parents, more critical of kid

• discussion

  • parenting social functioning/responsiveness may be most crucial

  • two main dimensions of dysfunctional parenting

    • parental negativity

    • ineffective discipline

child vs adult psychopathology

• TIME OF ONSET, LOOKS DIFFERENT BETWEEN KIDS AND ADULTS

• Disorders that occur or have onset primarily in childhood

• Disorders that can occur at all ages; kids may have similar symptoms that

  • Look different from those seen in adults

  • Manifest in developmental contexts

    • Lack of agency/control

why do disorders look different in children?

• NOT FULLY DEVELOPED→ DIFFERENT EXPERIENCE/MANIFESTATION, LIVING IN VERY DIFFERENT SOCIAL CONTEXT

• Neurodevelopmental and cognitive factors (certain neurocircuits not fully developed)

  • Cognitive 'maturity'

  • Don’t have full abstract thinking

  • Social attribution not fully there

• Social context

  • Dependence on parents and their interpretations

  • School expectations

  • Stigma and awareness

major classes of childhood psychopathology

• DEVELOPMENTAL, DISRUPTIVE, AFFECTIVE, OTHER

• Developmental disorders

  • Autism; pervasive developmental disorders

  • Language and learning disorders

• Disruptive behavior disorders (externalizing)

  • ADHD

  • Oppositional defiant disorder; conduct disorder

• Affective disorders (internalizing)

  • Anxiety disorders (PTSD and OCD)

  • Depression

• Other

  • Tourette's disorder; eating disorders; substance use disorders

epidemiology and prevalence of childhood psychopathology

• 17% OF CHILDREN WITH DISORDER, BOYS NOTICED MORE, PREVALENCE AND RESOURCE DIFFERENCES IN INCOME/OTHER DEMOGRAPHICS

• According to CDC, 17% of children 2-8 have a mental health disorder

• Boys were more likely to have a mental, behavioral, or developmental disorder

  • Might just be more obvious

• More than 22% (1 in 5) children living below the poverty line had a mental, behavioral, or developmental disorder

• Age, gender/sex, and family income affected children's likelihood for receiving treatment for anxiety, depression, or behavior problems

• Psychopathologies are often co-occurring

issues in diagnosing young children

• RELY ON ADULTS OPINION(BIAS), COGNTIVIE ABILITY TO DISCLOSE, WHAT ARE DEVELOPMENTALY ‘NOMRAL’ SYMPTOMS, COSTS OF DIAGNOSING

• Mostly rely on adults for data

  • "bias" in favor of externalizing problems/disorders

  • Other biases

• Children have limited ability to disclose or endorse symptoms

  • Cognitive/language limitations make interviewing children difficult

    • Memory/attention

• Need to evaluate whether symptoms are inappropriate for developmental level, whether they cause 'functional impairment' or clinically significant distress

• Hard to know which symptoms are indicative of childhood psychopathology

• Balance between what is typical vs atypical

  • sadness

• Diagnosing is hard-and not always accurate

• Costs associated with diagnosing

  • Lack of diagnosing leading to impairments

  • financial

risk and resilience in youth psychopathology

• RISK VS PROTECTIVE FACTORS, CONCEPTUALIZING RISK/PROTECTIVE

• Risk factors: conditions that threaten healthy development and functioning

• Protective factors: reduce likelihood of poor outcomes or buffer children from adverse experiences

• There are different ways to conceptualize risks, protective factors, and developmental adaptation

anxiety disorders in youth

• INTENSE AND ONGOING FEAR(BEYOND TYPICAL), SOCIAL/GENERAL COMMON, LIFE CHANGES, LOW EMOTIONAL REGULATION, SEPARATION ANXIETY

• Anxiety is normal human emotion that helps us respond to threats or challenges

• Some adolescents experience intense and ongoing fear that disrupts their daily life, such as making them stay home from school or avoid interacting with peers

• Social and general most common

• Social anxiety disorder is characterized by marked fear or intense anxiety about social situations that involve potential scrutiny by others

  • Fewer close relationships

  • Must cause impairment, for 6 months

• Late middle childhood/early adolescents, aligns with big life changes

• Common types: general, PTSD, OCD, social phobia, specific phobias

  • Risk factor: low emotional regulation

• Panic disorder can occur but is rare

• Separation anxiety disorder= prototypical anxiety 'disorder'

  • Most kids improve; some experience prolonged challenges or risk for other more severe psychopathology

• Kids may experience more than one

• Separation anxiety disorder

  • Children 5-8 report

    • Unrealistic worry about hard to attachment figure, refusal to leave presence

  • May manifest as excessive distress at times of separation

  • No gender differences in symptom presentation

  • As high as 75% of children who experience intense separation anxiety may refuse 'typical' activities

depression in youth

• SADNESS, HOPELESSNESS ETC., RISING EARLY TO MIDDLE ADOLESCENCE, GIRLS PREVALENCE, IRRITABILITY IN CHILDREN, CONTEXT MATTERS

• Depression refers to feelings of sadness, hopelessness, guilt, frustration accompanied by changes in sleep, eating habits, problems with concertation, loss of energy and motivation

• Depressive symptoms and rates of depression rise in early to middle adolescence

  • Girls twice as likely to report feeling hopeless as boys

  • Gender nonconforming also more likely

• Hard to precisely diagnose

• Irritability is often the primary symptom in young children

• Linked with increased risk of childhood and adolescent suicide

  • Risk increases in middle childhood

• Outcomes

  • Impaired school performance

  • Impaired motivation

  • Decreased sense of self

  • Impairment in concentration

  • Decreased mood and higher risks of social withdrawal

• Contextual factors, like neighborhood, SES, and extended experience of stress, contribute risk for depression and suicide

• Adolescent depression stems from and contributes to parental rejection

  • Bidirectional

• Depression is treated in variety of ways including psychotherapy and medication

ADHD in youth

• SUBTYPES, BOYS PREVALENCE, IMPULSIVITY, BEHAVIORAL, ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE, CLINICAL COURSE IMPROVEMENTS, CONTINUING TO ADULTHOOD

• Characterized by

  • Hyperactivity

  • Inattention/distractibility

  • Impulsivity

• Subtypes

  • Primary Inattentive

  • Primary hyperactive-impulsive (most prevalent)

  • Combined (mixed)

• Higher ratio of boys diagnosed

• Slightly more prevalent in children from lower SES backgrounds

• Associated symptoms

  • Difficulty getting along with other

  • Increase in behavioral problems

  • Difficulty learning or diminished school performance or positive feelings about school

  • Poor self-esteem (risk for depression)

  • Frequently comorbid with

    • Oppositional defiant disorder

    • Conduct disorder

    • Anxiety and depression

• Clinical course

  • Many children show improvements, especially with treatment

    • Medication/ environmental adjustment

  • 1/3rd may have symptoms in adolescence/adulthood but not significant impairment

  • 1/3rd may be very symptomatic into adulthood

  • May be associated with substance use, school failure, and antisocial behavior in later life

other disruptive behavior disorders in youth

• OPPOSITIONAL, CONDUCT, HARMFUL BEHAVIORS, CAN PERSIST TO ADULTHOOD

• Oppositional defiant disorder

  • Defiant disorder aimed at authority figures

• Conduct disorder

  • Violating rules, other etc.

• Behaviors such as:

  • Stealing

  • Destructing property

  • Cruelty to animals

  • Committing harm against others

• Risk to develop into antisocial behavior/disorder in adulthood

pervasive developmental disorder

• AUTISM, IMPAIRMENTS(LANGUAGE, SOCIAL, NARROW INTEREST)

• Autism and ASD

• Associated with

  • Impairments in language

  • Deficient in social functioning

  • Narrowed and restricted activities and interests

• Now known to occur on a spectrum with many distinct symptoms presentation

• Autism: evenly prevalent across SES and ethnic backgrounds

  • Less known about development/clinical course among marginalized groups

suicide in youth

• SELF-DIRECTED INJURY WITH INTENT TO DIE, FEMALE(CONSIDERING), LGBTQ, PREVENTION PROGRAMS/COMBO SUPPORT HELPFUL

• Suicide is death caused by self-directed injuries with intent to die

• Female students more likely to seriously consider

• LGBTQ youth experience an exceptionally high risk for suicide, with three to four times as many attempts as other youth

• School-based suicide prevention programs teach students and staff to identify the warning signs of suicide

• A combination of therapy, sometimes medication, increasing support at home, school, and in the peer group can help young people who experience suicidal ideation or attempt suicide

alcohol and substance use in youth

• COMMON, DECLINING OVER TIME, EARLIER ONSET→HIGHER RISK LATER IN LIFE, SUBSTANCE SPECIFIC PARENTING, PEER PRESSURE/PARENTS

• Many young people first try substances, such as tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, illicit drugs, during adolescence

• Generational trends in the use exist

• Despite declines in use, minor experimentation or 'trying' alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana is normative for North American adolescents

• Substance use initiation

  • Starting drinking/using earlier, linked to more severe problems with substances

  • Substance specific parenting

    • Actively involve child in substance use

    • Creating indirect norm

• Alcohol and substance use, though common, pose risks

• Drinking and substance use are associated with friends behavior, their belief's about peer support for use, and access to alcohol and substances

  • Parents also influence adolescent drinking and substance use through modeling and normalizing use

• School drop out, risky sexual activity, aggression, anxiety, depression

cigarette and E cigarette use in youth

• E-CIG MORE COMMON, REWARD PATHWAYS-→ WITHDRAWAL

• 5% of high school seniors use cigarettes in the past 30 days

• Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of preventable death in the US, 1 in 5 deaths each year

• Today, e-cigs are the most commonly used tobacco product

• Nicotine stimulates reward pathways in the brain, causing immediate and long-lasting withdrawal symptoms, including irritability, craving, anxiety, and attention deficits

psychosomatic conditions in youth

• RISING? PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS FROM MENTAL FACTORS, DIFFICULT TO DIAGNOSE

• There has arguably been a rise in psychosomatic presentation among youth

• Psychosomatic conditions: Physical symptoms caused by exacerbated mental health factors

• Different symptoms presentations:

  • Pain related

  • Gastrointestinal

  • Cardiopulmonary

  • Fatigue and energy

• Particularly difficult to diagnose in children

• Often school refusal, wake up with psychosomatic experience that make them not want to go

why are families so important in psychopathology development

• PROXIMITY, DIRECT AND INDIRECT IMPACT, CONSTRUCTS ENVIRONMENT

• Most proximal and therefore most influential context

• Indirectly and directly shape psychological adjustment

  • Behaviors

  • Thoughts

  • Emotions

  • Construction of general/broader developmental environment

• Youth often lack control or input in key decisions regarding their health and well-being

• Research shows cascading and intergenerational patterns

  • Can establish interactable risk that can be hard to identify, treat, prevent

cohabiting families on youth

• UNMARRIED RELATIONSHIP LESS STABLE, CLOSENESS/STABILITY OF PARENTS, ECONOMIC SITUATION BETTER THAN SINGLE PARENT

• Unmarried cohabiting couples tend to have shorter, less stable relationships than married couples

• Kids living in cohabiting households are much more likely to experience family instability

• Children of unmarried cohabiting parents who have close, caring relationships with them and whose union is stable are stable

• On average, children raise in cohabiting-parent families of economic situations that are better than those of many children in one-parent families

divorce and divorcing families on youth

• DECLINING RATES, CHANGING ROLES/RESPONSIBILITY

• In the US, the divorce rate has declined over past three decades

• Triggers reconfiguration of family roles and family responsibility

grandparent headed families on youth

• RACIAL DISPARITIES, EXPERIENCING ADVERSITY/POVERTY, GRANDPARENT ROLE CHANGING

• Disproportionately likely to be Black, Native, Hispanic

  • Grandparents assume caregiving responsibilities sin response to parental absence or incapacity of parent to provide for child

• Children raised by grandparents have often experienced adversity

• Nearly half of grandparent-headed households live in poverty

• Grandparent caregiving is not a normative part of adult development and can be stressful

adoption and child outcomes

• MORE RESOURCES ONCE ADOPTED, PREVIOUS ADVERSITY→ ADJUSTMENT/ACADEMIC/BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS

• Adoptive children typically spend more time with their parents and have more educational resources than other children

• Longitudinal research suggests that adoption is associated with lower academic attainment across childhood into adolescents and adulthood

• Adopted children may also show more behavior problems and adjustment difficulties, sometimes persisting into adulthood

• Children's experiences before adoption, especially any neglect and maltreatment, and their developmental status at time of adoption, influence their short and long term adjustment

foster care on youth

• FACE RISK BEFORE ENTERING, ENTER WITH VARIETY OF PROBLEMS

• Children in foster care face multiple risk before entering

  • May enter with preexisting physical, mental, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral challenges

• Fostter children often enter system with many pressing problems that can challenge the adults who care for them

children with deployed/incarcerated parents

• ACT AS STRESSOR ON CHILDREN/FAMILY

• deployed

  • Significant demands on family

  • Unknown, extreme risk

  • Lack of control over lives

  • Emotional and behavioral difficulties

• incarcerated

  • Compounded by sociodemographic factors

  • Race and SES

  • Adversities before and after incarceration

family mechanisms on youth psychopathology

• CONSTRUCTIVE VS DESTRUCTIVE ON VARIETY OF FACTORS

• Interparental family conflict

  • Constructive vs destructive

• Parenting

  • Sensitivity

  • Attributions and cognitions

  • Positive, negative

  • Parental characteristics and experiences

  • Co-parenting and parental support

  • Aspects of parent child relationships

  • Family roles, including role implementation or monitoring

  • Intergenerational psychopathology

    • Modeling, norms, youth involvement in parental behavior/experiences