EVERTHING AP GOV

1st Amendment

Freedom of religion speech press assembly and petition

2nd Amendment

Right to bear arms

3rd Amendment

No quartering of soldiers in homes

4th Amendment

No unreasonable searches and seizures warrants required

5th Amendment

Rights of accused due process no self incrimination double jeopardy eminent domain

6th Amendment

Right to speedy public trial lawyer jury witnesses

7th Amendment

Jury trial in civil cases

8th Amendment

No cruel and unusual punishment no excessive bail or fines

9th Amendment

Rights not listed are still kept by the people

10th Amendment

Powers not given to federal gov go to states or people

11th Amendment

States cannot be sued by citizens of another state

12th Amendment

Separate ballots for president and vice president

13th Amendment

Abolished slavery

14th Amendment

Citizenship equal protection due process

15th Amendment

Voting rights regardless of race

16th Amendment

Federal income tax

17th Amendment

Direct election of senators

18th Amendment

Prohibition of alcohol

19th Amendment

Women’s right to vote

20th Amendment

Terms of president and Congress start dates (lame duck)

21st Amendment

Repealed prohibition

22nd Amendment

Presidential term limits (2 terms)

23rd Amendment

DC gets electoral votes

24th Amendment

No poll tax

25th Amendment

Presidential succession and disability

26th Amendment

Voting age 18

27th Amendment

Congressional pay changes delayed until next term

Voting rights

The legal rules that determine who is allowed to vote and how voting is carried out; they matter because unequal access can create unequal representation and policy outcomes.

15th Amendment (1870)

Constitutional amendment that prohibits denying the right to vote on the basis of race.

19th Amendment (1920)

Constitutional amendment that prohibits denying the right to vote on the basis of sex.

24th Amendment (1964)

Constitutional amendment that bans poll taxes in federal elections.

26th Amendment (1971)

Constitutional amendment that lowered the voting age to 18.

Voting Rights Act (VRA) of 1965

Major federal civil rights law aimed at ending racial discrimination in voting by banning discriminatory practices (e.g., literacy tests) and creating federal oversight of certain jurisdictions’ election rule changes.

Shelby County v. Holder (2013)

Supreme Court decision that struck down part of the VRA’s coverage formula used to determine which jurisdictions needed federal approval before changing election rules, weakening how preclearance operated.

National Voter Registration Act (NVRA) (1993) / “Motor Voter”

Federal law that expanded voter registration opportunities, including allowing registration at motor vehicle agencies.

Voter identification (ID) laws

Rules requiring voters to show identification (often photo ID); supported as fraud prevention but criticized for potentially burdening some groups more than others.

Early voting / absentee or mail voting

Election “convenience” options that can reduce time and travel costs of voting and may increase turnout by lowering participation barriers.

Costs of participation

A way to analyze election rules as the practical time, information, and resource burdens of voting; when costs rise, participation often falls, especially for lower-resource voters.

Rational-choice voting

Model in which voters act in self-interest by weighing costs and benefits and supporting candidates whose policies they expect will benefit them, often using shortcuts like party labels due to limited information.

Retrospective voting

Voting behavior where voters judge incumbents or the party in power based on past performance (often the economy, security, and crises), asking whether conditions have improved.

Prospective voting

Voting behavior where voters choose the candidate/party they believe will perform best in the future based on promises, ideology, or perceived competence.

Party-line (partisan) voting

When voters support candidates of the same party across many races; associated with strong party identification and polarization.

Linkage institutions

Structures that connect the public to government—especially political parties, interest groups, and the media—by informing, mobilizing, and translating preferences into policy demands.

Voter turnout

The percentage of eligible (or registered) voters who cast ballots in an election; it shapes representation because officials respond more to groups that vote consistently.

Mobilization (Get Out the Vote/GOTV)

Efforts by campaigns, parties, or groups to increase participation through direct contact and reminders; being asked to vote is a strong predictor of voting.

Political efficacy

Belief that one can influence politics; commonly divided into internal efficacy (confidence in understanding/participating) and external efficacy (belief government will respond).

Internal efficacy

Belief that you can understand politics and participate effectively.

External efficacy

Belief that government will respond to citizens; low external efficacy can reduce participation because the system seems unresponsive.

Political socialization

The process by which people form political values and opinions through influences such as family, schools, peers, media, and major events.

Political party

An organized group with shared or similar ideologies that seeks to win elections, hold public office, and influence policy; parties are not mentioned in the U.S. Constitution.

Party identification

A psychological attachment to a political party that filters political information and shapes vote choice, often increasing straight-ticket/party-line voting.

Two-party system

U.S. pattern dominated by Democrats and Republicans, reinforced by electoral rules (especially winner-take-all elections) and ballot access barriers that disadvantage third parties.

Winner-take-all (plurality) elections

Elections in which the candidate with the most votes wins the seat (often in single-member districts), creating “wasted vote” incentives that discourage third-party success.

Primary election

A state-run election in which voters choose a party’s nominee for the general election; expanded use of primaries has reduced party leaders’ control over nominations.

Caucus

A party-run meeting where participants discuss and vote on candidates; typically requires more time, draws fewer participants, and tends to attract more informed/active voters than primaries.

Front-loading

When states move primaries earlier in the election calendar to gain influence, speeding up nominations and sometimes forcing voters to decide with less information.

Electoral College

The system for choosing the president in which states receive electors equal to their House + Senate representation; in most states, the statewide popular-vote winner receives all electors (winner-take-all).

Swing state

A competitive state where either major party could win, causing campaigns to focus disproportionate time, money, and mobilization efforts there under winner-take-all Electoral College rules.

Incumbency advantage

Structural benefits enjoyed by current officeholders (name recognition, constituent services, fundraising networks, media attention) that raise reelection rates, especially in House races.

Reapportionment

Redistribution of House seats among states after each census based on population changes.

Redistricting

Redrawing of district boundaries within a state, typically after reapportionment, which can affect representation and electoral competition.

Gerrymandering

Drawing district lines to benefit a party or group, often reducing competition, increasing polarization by creating safe seats, and weakening the link between votes and seats.

Packing

A gerrymandering strategy that concentrates opposing voters into a small number of districts to reduce their influence elsewhere.

Cracking

A gerrymandering strategy that splits opposing voters across many districts so they are less likely to form a majority in any one district.

Majority-minority district

A district in which a racial or ethnic minority makes up a majority of the population; can increase descriptive representation but may also raise concerns about packing.

Free-rider problem

A collective action problem where individuals benefit from a policy outcome whether or not they helped, reducing incentives to join or contribute to interest groups.

Selective benefits

Member-only incentives (e.g., networking, certification help) that interest groups use to overcome the free-rider problem and encourage participation.

Lobbying

Attempting to influence legislators and officials, often by providing information, expertise, draft language, and signals about what supporters care about; not synonymous with bribery.

PAC (Political Action Committee)

An organization permitted to raise and contribute money to candidates/parties within legal limits; often associated with corporations, unions, or trade associations using member/employee contributions.

Super PAC

A political committee that can raise and spend unlimited funds on independent expenditures as long as it does not coordinate directly with candidates’ campaigns.

Independent expenditure

Spending to support or oppose a candidate that is not coordinated with the candidate’s campaign; treated differently from direct contributions in campaign finance law.

Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) (1974)

Campaign finance law (and later amendments) that created disclosure requirements and attempted to regulate contributions and expenditures; helped structure modern rules for campaign finance and PAC activity.

Buckley v. Valeo (1976)

Supreme Court case holding that mandatory spending limits violate First Amendment principles and distinguishing contributions (more regulable) from expenditures (more protected), shaping modern campaign finance rules.

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

Supreme Court decision allowing corporations and unions to make independent expenditures on political communication, contributing to growth in outside spending.

Agenda setting

Media effect in which coverage influences which issues the public thinks are important.

Priming

Media effect in which emphasis on certain issues changes the standards voters use to evaluate candidates (e.g., focusing on foreign policy makes security experience more salient).

Framing

Media effect in which how an issue is presented (the interpretive “frame”) influences how people understand it and what conclusions they draw.

Civil liberties

Constitutional protections from government power (limits on what government can do to individuals), such as speech, search-and-seizure protections, and the right to counsel.

Civil rights

Guarantees of equal treatment and protection against discrimination, often tied to the 14th Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause and civil rights statutes.

Bill of Rights

The first 10 constitutional amendments (ratified Dec. 15, 1791) that list key protections for individual liberty; none of these rights is absolute.

Barron v. Baltimore (1833)

Held that the Bill of Rights restricted the national government but did not apply to state governments.

Fourteenth Amendment (1868)

Post–Civil War amendment that expanded protections against state governments, including the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses; central to incorporating rights against the states.

Due Process Clause (14th Amendment)

Provides that no state may deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law; key vehicle for selective incorporation.

Equal Protection Clause (14th Amendment)

Provides that no state shall deny any person equal protection of the laws; major basis for discrimination/civil rights claims.

Selective incorporation

Supreme Court process applying most (but not all) Bill of Rights protections to the states, case-by-case, through the 14th Amendment Due Process Clause.

Gitlow v. New York (1925)

Early step toward incorporating First Amendment free speech and press protections against the states.

State action doctrine

Principle that most constitutional limits apply to government actors (or conduct fairly attributable to government), not purely private conduct.

Rational basis review

Lowest tier of scrutiny: law must be rationally related to a legitimate government interest (default; easiest for government to satisfy).

Intermediate scrutiny

Mid-level scrutiny: law must be substantially related to an important government interest (often used for sex classifications).

Strict scrutiny

Highest tier of scrutiny: law must be narrowly tailored to achieve a compelling government interest (often used for race classifications and burdens on fundamental rights).

Establishment Clause

First Amendment rule that government may not establish an official religion or improperly endorse, fund, or coerce religious exercise.

Free Exercise Clause

First Amendment protection that government may not prohibit the free exercise of religion, though the right is not absolute.

Engel v. Vitale (1962)

Held that government-directed prayer in public schools violates the Establishment Clause (problem is state sponsorship/coercion, not private prayer).

Lemon test

From Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971): Establishment Clause framework asking whether a law has a secular purpose, a primary effect that neither advances nor inhibits religion, and no excessive entanglement with religion.

Kennedy v. Bremerton School District (2022)

Shifted Establishment Clause analysis away from Lemon as controlling, emphasizing history-and-tradition reasoning.

Employment Division v. Smith (1990)

Held that neutral, generally applicable laws do not necessarily require religious exemptions under the Free Exercise Clause.

Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA) (1993)

Federal statute creating stronger protection for religious exercise against the federal government, providing exemptions in some situations even when the Constitution does not require them.

Schenck v. United States (1919)

Upheld conviction under the Espionage Act for anti-draft leaflets; associated with the idea that speech may be limited when it poses a serious danger (often taught with “clear and present danger”).

Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969)

Modern incitement standard: speech can be punished only if directed to inciting imminent lawless action and likely to produce it.

Content-based restriction

Speech regulation targeting ideas/viewpoints; highly suspect under the First Amendment and more likely to be struck down.