Middle Eastern History

East Roman Empire

Often referred to as the Byzantine Empire, what was left after the fall of Rome, predominantly Christian, Emperors held political and often religious authority, fell in 1453 due to Ottoman siege

Sasanian Empire

Ruled over modern-day Iran, Shahanshahs ruled by patrilineal descent, not universally Zoroastrian, in constant conflict with Byzantine Empire, which eventually led to its fall in 651 after they were conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate

Samanid Empire

Sunni Muslim empire, emerges in the wake of the Abbasid Caliphate, united under Ismail Samani, patrons of Persian literature and culture (part of Persian Renaissance), ruled over modern-day Iran, falls in 999

Seljuk Sultanate

Successor state to Abbasids, reclaimed Iran as the political center of the Middle East, Turkish-Persian ruling style with centralized government, used slave-soldiers, had nomadic origins, period of Turkish domination that had grand linguistic and demographic impacts for the ME, fell 1141

Umayyad Dynasty

Marks the emergence of the first Islamic state with proper institutions, capital in Damascus, centering Syria as the political center of their empire, fell to the Abbasids in 750

Abbasid Caliphate

Emerges from Umayyad dynasty but breaks with their legacy and aligns themselves with Sasanian Iranian/Persian legacy, moves the capital to Baghdad, part of the Islamic golden age due to their development of key pillars of Islamic ideology and state institutions, collapses in 10th century as Caliphal authority wanes

Fatimid caliphate

Shiite successor state to the (Sunni) Abbasid caliphate formed in 902, capital in Cairo, practiced religious tolerance, fell in 1171 due to loss of Caliphal authority, civil war, and Seljuk incursion

Mongol Empire

Founded and ruled over by Genghis Khan from 1206 to 1368, Immediate, rapid, and vast domination, killed last Abbasid Caliphate, militarized society based on soldiers from the Mongolian Steppe, divided into khanates after Khan’s death, Ilkhanate most long lasting but eventually falls due to internal conflict

Ottoman Empire

Rose after the fall of the Mongols as a small chiefdom, quickly and rapidly expanded due to their process of flexible incorporation of conquered territories under the Millet system, established Christian military corps called janissaries via the Devshirme system, conquered Constantinople in 1453, rivalry with the Shia Kizilbash and Safavid empires, eventually fell in 20th century due to nationalization and increasing military defeats

Ayyubid Sultanate

Sunni-Kurdish dynasty, formed in 1107 after the abolishment of the Fatimid Caliphate, united the Muslim world against Christian crusaders, restored Sunni dominance, fell in 1260 due to Mongol and Mamluk pressures

Timurid Empire

Emerges as successors to the Mongol empire in 1360, unites Steppe nomads and succeeds through constant warfare and expansion that keeps the army occupied, aids the rise of Sufism through their patronage, death of Timurid exposes the flimsiness of their political structure, overrun by Uzbeks in 1507

Mamluk Sultanate

Slave-children soldiers of Ayyubid dynasty who overthrew the Ayyubid dynasty and emerged as resistors and eventual victors over the Mongols in 1260, key power came from their military command structure, revived the Abbasid Caliphate (Sunni), collapse in 1517 after Ottomans conquer them

Safavid Empire

Turkish empire founded in 1051 by Sufi Shah Ismaili, rivals with Ottoman Empire due to their religious incompatibility, were able to conquer territories based on Turkish Kizilbash support, legacy of making a distinct Iranian, Shiite polity, collapses in 1514 due to Ottoman defeat

Rashidun Caliphate

first Islamic state established after Muhammad’s death in 633, led by the ‘rightly guided’ first four Caliphs, gave rise to the Shia Sunni split after the first four caliphs, succeeded by Umayyad dynasty in 661

Caliph Mu’awiya

founder and first Caliph of the Umayyad dynasty, credited for the emergence of the Islamic state, shifted capital to Damascus, tentative beginnings of statehood, overthrown by second Fitna in 680

Third Fitna or Abbasid Revolution

747 to 750, Overthrew the Umayyad dynasty and brought the Abbasid Caliphate dynasty to power, appealed to disenfranchised Muslim converts

Caliph Harun al-Rashid

Ruled over the Abbasid Caliphate from 786-809, engaged in battles against the Byzantine Empire

Caliph Al ma’mun

ruled from 813 to 833 during period of civil war between caliphs, instituted the Mihna to persecute Sunni scholars who objected to the belief of the created nature of the Quran, failed to make the Ulama bow to his will with the Mihna, signifying the waning of caliphal authority

Genghis Khan

Born 1167 in to nomadic tribe in the steppe, united nomadic steppe tribes to conquer neighboring lands and form the Mongol Empire

The Ilkhanate

One of the factions of the Mongol Empire after Genghis Khan’s death, ruled over modern day Iran, tried to present themselves as the heirs of Sasanian Iran, collapses in 1345 due to infighting and paves the way for the rise of the Timurids

Timur

Nomadic conqueror of the Eurasian Steppe who succeeded the Mongols in Iran and Central Asia, ruled by continued movement of army and conquest in order to not expose the instability of his political system, patronized Sufi scholars and institutions, known for his cultural achievements and rich court, died in 1405

Mehmed II

Ottoman ruler from 1444-1481 who developed the Devshirme system and enhanced religious and state institutions and laws, turned the Ottoman state into an Empire

Fall of Constantinople

Former capital of the Byzantine empire that was conquered by the Ottomans in 1453 marking effective end of the Roman Empire and the high point of the Ottoman Empire and Islamic rule, opened the Ottomans up to key Mediterranean trade routes

Shah Ismail

Founder and first Shah of Safavid Iran who ruled from 1501 until 1524, battled with Ottomans for political superiority but masked as a Sufi(Shiite)-Suni divide

Sunnism

Islamic sect that believed that Abu Bakr should be leader following Muhammad’s death aka elected leadership not birthright leadership, vast majority of the modern Muslim population, generally linked with Sufism, Sunni revival from 1055-1258

Shiism

Islamic sect that believed the divine right to rule belonged to the prophets descendants the Imams who are infallible and possess absolute religious authority, minority religion, Shia century from 945 to 1055 where they held majority sway over Middle East

Sufism

Mystical/Spiritual dimension of Islam typically linked to Sunnis although it is not a distinct sect, lineage traces back to Muhammad

Battle of Lepanto

1571 battle between Ottomans and Holy League, created a power vacuum by destroying the Ottoman navy and leaving the Mediterranean open

Shah Abbas

Ruled over the Safavid Empire from 1588 to 1629, apogee of the Safavid state and epitome of good government, thought of as the founder of Modern Iran due to his Iranianization of the government

Osman II

Ottoman ruler who was executed due to succession battles, was an important step in bringing the Ottoman Empire under legal control and showing that political factions held equal sway to the sultan

Treaty of Karlowitz

1699 settlement between Ottomans and Holy League, enormous sense of loss for Ottomans with no chance of recovery

1703 Janissary Rebellion

Due to dissatisfaction with the reigning Ottoman sultans distance, the declining economy and the power of chiefs, executed Sultan Mustafa II

Afghan Rebellion

1709-1726 series of uprisings exploiting Safavid weakness to establish an Afghan state, culminated in Russian-Ottoman intervention against wars with Nader Shah

Nader Shah

Starts out as a military leader in the Kizilbash, reunited the Iranian realm and takes the throne in 1736, assassinated in 1747

Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca

1774 treaty after Ottoman defeat in war with Russia, had disastrous effects for Ottomans as they lost territory, control of the Black sea, and had to pay large fees

Treaty of Passarowitz

1781 treaty ending Ottoman-Venetian war- Ottomans lose territory but not overall significant

Selim III

Ruled Ottoman Empire from 1789-1807, recognized the problems with the army and janissaries and attempted reforms (new army to replace Janissary corps, more foreign engagement, reformation of tax-farming system), but was unsuccessful and forced to abdicate

Mahmud II

ruled Ottoman Empire from 1808 to 1839, enacted the ‘Auspicious Incident’ in 1826 to disband the Janissary corps and replace them with more modern, European-style troops

Rose Chamber Edict

1839, enacted in response to Balkan separatist movements promising new citizenship rights for non-Muslims and economic reforms, new idea of Ottomanism emerges from this

Tanzimat Period

1839 to 1880 period of Ottoman reforms that recognized the ongoing issues and demands of the Christian populations, tried to modernize legal, military, and economic systems while still promoting Ottomanism and unity

Young Ottomans

Biggest voice of opposition against the Tanzimat policies, as they saw them as capitulation to European dictates, believed the reforms were insufficient and proposed their own constitutionalism based on Islamic concepts

Ottoman Constitution

first promulgated in 1876, written by the Young Ottomans, was later amended but marked the beginning of the constitutional era

Treaty of San Stefano

1878 treaty after Ottoman loss with Russia, Ottomans lost Montenegro, Romania, and Serbia and Bulgaria was granted autonomy, greatly upsetting the European balance of power in its favor

Congress of Berlin

1871, renegotiated the San Stefano treaty and allowed for continued Ottoman presence in Balkans due to Europeans fears over Russia gaining too much territory and becoming too powerful, reduced Russia’s power in the Balkan region

Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC)

Formed in 1909 after discovery of oil in Iran, gave British government official control over Iran’s oil supply, renamed AIOC in 1935 and eventually nationalized under PM Mohammad Mossadegh

Faisal I ibn Husayn

Military and political leader of the Great Arab Revolt, became king of Syria in 1920 but was quickly expelled by the French, then enthroned as King of Iraq under British mandate in 1921, lobbied for Iraqi independence and saw through the end of British Mandate

French Mandate

Gave France control of the Levant following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire from 1923 to 1946, eventually withdrew following increased nationalist resistance

British Mandate

League of Nations administrative mandate giving Britain control of modern-day Israel, Palestine, and Jordan from 1920 to 1948 when they withdrew due to nationalist tensions

Great Syrian Revolt

Began in 1925 in Druze mountain heartlands as an attempt to regain the benefits the Druze reaped under Ottoman rule, quickly took on nationalist tones in Damascus but was squashed militarily by the French

The Great Revolt

1936-1939 Palestinian revolt caused by increased Jewish immigration to Palestine after WWII, land transfers that increased Palestinian displacement, and growing fear from Palestinians of becoming a minority. Was an inspiration for anti-colonial movements across the Arab world as it resisted British mandate. Was ultimately repressed.

The Nakba

1948 withdrawal of Britain from Palestine which caused immediate war between Israel and the Arab nation armies as well as the massive displacement of Palestinian Peoples, became a focal point for the Palestinian National Identity an Al-Awda.

Mohammed Mossadegh

Qajar aristocrat who led a movement calling for the nationalization of Iranian oil, was elected PM in 1951 but was brought down by US-British coup in 1953 causing major protests

Tir uprising

Massive revolt in support of Mossadegh and responding to Anglo-American coup, lead to revolts in the streets and the reinstatement of Mossadegh as PM, paving the way for the nationalization of Iran’s oil

Palestinian Liberation Organization

Formed in 1964 as an umbrella foundation, sought to establish an Arab state and completely eliminate Israel,