psych paper 3

True experiment (a.k.a. laboratory experiment)

a) Examines the effects of an IV on a DV b) random allocation to the treatment or control condition is possible c) Takes place in a controlled environment and extraneous variables are controlled

Field experiment

a) Examines the effects of an IV on a DV b) Takes place in a naturalistic setting c) Control of extraneous variables is not always possible

Quasi-experiment

a) Examines the effects of an IV on a DV b) “In quasi-experiments, participants are grouped based on a characteristic of interest or natural event

correlational study

 A design which investigates relationships between variables without the researcher controlling or manipulating any of them

There is a focus on two variables, however, these are not independent and dependent variables as the hypothesis is not based on cause and effect, instead they are referred to as co-variables.

Correlations can be positive (+1 is a perfect positive correlation) or negative (-1 is a perfect negative correlation) or there may be a zero correlation.

natural experiment

a) the independent variable occurs naturally in the environment and is not manipulated by the researcher. b) Variables cannot be manipulated so cause and effect cannot be established.

Survey

a) Gathers data on a large number of participants b) They use closed ended questions or likert scales.

Case study

a) an in-depth investigation of an individual, small group or organization b) Multiple methods are used to gather data (which is what makes them “indepth”) c) They often use a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods

naturalistic observation

a) Subjects’ behaviour is observed in a naturalistic environment b) The researcher will try and avoid any interference with the participants to maintain the natural setting.

covert and overt

participant and non participant

Semi-structured interviews

a) An interview that follows an interview schedule – it includes an outline of topics to be covered, but allows for deviation and elaboration b) Can include a combination of open and closed questions c) It resembles a conversation

Unstructured interviews

a) The interviewer has topics to cover, but there is a lot of freedom and the precise questions and order are not fixed b) Can include open and closed questions c) The interview evolves as a result of the interactions between the researcher and the interviewee

Focus group interviews

normally consists of around 6 to 10 people and members of the group often have a common characteristic, which is relevant for the topic of investigation

The researcher has the role of facilitator, which means they are in charge of the group to make sure it stays on task by monitoring and prompting the group discussion.

Purposive sampling

In a purposive sample, participants are chosen based on the specific characteristics that the researcher wants to study

In most qualitative research, purposive sampling is used

Purposive is often times in addition to other methods

The only way to study a certain behavior

Opportunity sample

Participants are chosen based on convenience, not random selection.

Self-selected sample

A self-selected sample is a non-random sampling method where participants volunteer to take part in a study, usually by responding to an advertisement or invitation.

snowball sampling

A snowball sample is a non-random sampling method where existing participants recruit further participants, useful for accessing hard-to-reach or hidden populations.

stratified

A stratified sample is a sampling method where the target population is divided into subgroups (strata), and participants are randomly selected in proportion to their representation in the population.

CARDUD

Consent

Anonymity

Right to withdraw

Deception

Undue stress or harm

Debriefing

Confidentiality

participants should not be identified by name or by descriptive details that would lead to recognition in the community > negative outcomes

Justice and equitable treatment

Unjust treatment includes publishing an idea that leads to prejudice against a group or withholding treatment that you believe is beneficial from some participants so that you can use them as controls.

Sound and valid methodologies

when research findings are published, people are likely to take them as fact, and policies may be based on them. It is important that the limitations of the studies are explicitly communicated to all

Deception

findings are precisely and cautiously stated to avoid misunderstandings of the research. Findings should not be overstated. Should avoid p-hacking - the misuse of data analysis by performing statistical tests on the data and only reporting the ones that come back statistically significant

Reflexivity

researchers should be aware of how their findings may be used by others.

Transparency

researchers should be transparent about the funding of their research

statistical generalization - quantitative research

Generalisation to a wider population is increased if the sample accurately reflects the population it claims to represent.

Ecological validity - quantitative research

Generalisation to a real life situation is increased if the task in the study mimics real life situations or the consequences for the actions of the participants closely match those in the real world.

Construct validity - quantitative research

Construct validity is the degree to which a test measures what it claims to be measuring. Generalisation to a real life situation is increased if the construct validity of the study is high and the way the researcher is measuring or manipulating the variables matches the way those variables might be seen in real life.

Representational transferability - qualitative research

Representational transferability means that findings from qualitative research studies can be applied to populations outside the target population of the study. it may occur if the findings from other studies confirm the main findings of the study or the sample is similar to the population in other setting

Inferential transferability - qualitative research

Inferential transferability means that the findings of the study can be applied to settings outside the setting of the study. Inferential transferability may occur if the setting of the study is similar to other settings and if the researcher has provided enough in depth information about their research setting.

Theoretical transferability - qualitative research

Theoretical transferability means that theoretical concepts derived from the study can be used to develop further theory. Theoretical transferability may occur if the theory developed in the study can be transferred to other groups and settings and used to explain their experiences. This will be increased if other studies support the theory and it becomes more robust over time.

Data triangulation

Using different data sources within the same method. Ensures that it is not just the sample alone that led to the findings

Method triangulation

Different data collection methods with the same sample to check consistency

Ensures that is not just the choice of the research method alone that led to the results

Researcher triangulation

using other researchers to help carry out the research and review the data

Ensures that it is not just the researcher alone who led to the findings, but that the findings are consistently interpreted by different researchers

Member checking

The researchers would ask the participants to give feedback on the study

A technique in which the data, interpretations, and conclusions are shared with the participants.

Allows participants to clarify what their intentions were, correct errors, and provide additional information if necessary

Researcher credibility

Researchers personal and professional experience with regard to the topic under investigation

The training the researcher underwent with regard to the method used

Actions taken by the researcher to prepare for a specific study

Back translation

A translator or a team of professional translators interprets a document previously translated into another language back to the original language

Selection bias - how people are chosen

WEIRD - western educated industrialized rich democratic cultures. University students. YAVIS - young affluent verbal intelligent and social

Self selection bias: people that volunteer tend to be more highly motivated than the average person or have specific reasons why they want to be in the particular study

Ascertainment bias

when a particular group is left out of research

Avoiding selection bias

Clearly define the target population: the sample is only biased based on the population it is drawn from, not the whole world. These variables of the population are clearly defined.

Quota sampling: (similar to stratified sampling) allows the sample to statistically represent the proportions of certain characteristics in the population being studied.

Justify exclusion: if a certain characteristic is excluded from the sampling, this should be documented and justified

Participant bias - chosen people

The tendency of participants in an experiment to consciously or subconsciously act in a way they think the experimenter or researcher wants them to act

Social desirability bias is when particpants respond inaccurately so that they are liked or not seen in a negative light. Especially in cases of sensitive personal, or controversial topics

How to avoid social desirability bias

Particpants should know the data is confidential

Use techniques that allow for anonymity - eg questionnaire

Questions should be asked in a way that does not lead to potential judrment from the researcher

Information is presented in a judement free manner

Acquiescence bias

When the particpsnts choose to agree with the researcher. Bc they might be bored, distracted, or tired

This can have an effect on questionnaires where there is minimal effort in responding to questions

How to avoid acquiescence bias

Frame questions that are open ended to prevent particpants from simply agreeing/disagreeing, and guide them to provide a truthful and honest answer

The number of questions should not be more than needed

Dont make participation obligatory > lowers motivation and can lead to the screw you effect

Researcher bias

Any unintended errors in the research process or the interpretation of the results that are attributable to an investigators expectencies or preconceived beliefs

Avoiding researcher bias

Peer review: the evaluation of a researchers work by others working in the same field

Approved by a committee of peers before being undertaken. Then the final paper should be revieewed before publication

Peers point out any bias which may compromise the way a study is done or how the findings are interpreted

Researcher triangulation: having more than one researcher carry out the study or interpret data

Use of leading questions

Problem with interviews or when instructions are given in an experiment that imply how the participants should behave

How to avoid leading questions

Peer review the questions

Carry out a series of pilot interviews. Debrief the interviewees to see if the questions are confusing or leading

Consider using an unstructured interview to avoid asking direct questions

Personal reflexivity

When a researcher thinks about how their own personal values, beliefs and experiences may have influenced their ability to be objective when conducting and interpreting data in the study

Epistemological reflexivity

When a researcher reflects on how the way that research was carried out may have influenced the findings