Religious traditions of India: Intro+ Hinduism

What are the traditional religions of India?

Hindu dharme, Jainism Dharma, Buddhism Dharma, Sikhism Dharma

what does “dharma” mean? (sanskrit+ pali)

sanskrit: that which hold together
pali: 1) refers to the changing world in which suffering exists
2) teaching/doctrine

What are the outside traditions of India?

-2 proselytizing traditions: christianity & islam

-2 non-proselytizing traditions: zoroastrainism, judaism

what does Kala mean?

“time”: -            Hindu’s believe everything should be done at a appropriate time and place  (time is always cyclical)→ astronomy & astrology

what does Veda mean?

“knowledge”: -            highest religious authority, the Rsis (poets) “heard” these hymns in the Vedic language (collections of Vedas= Sruti), oral transmission

what does Dharma mean?

-            is what the Veda reveals “what holds together”= basis of cosmic, natural, social, moral order

What does Moksha mean?

“release”: ): Dharma regulates life and society, moksa makes one free from the limitations of temporarily life (release from endless cycle of birth, death and rebirth), they exist side by side

What does Karma mean?

“action”: -            all actions have an effect, explains inequalities/injustice

o   Binds people to the world bcs of continuous results of rebirth

what does Samsara mean?

“repetition”: the cycle of birth, death and rebirth (whether human or non-human)

what does Moksa-marga mean?

“paths to liberation”: -            life on earth is not final, nor a cause for regret or resignation. If lived while guided by Dharma, it is a preparation for liberation (moksa). To obtain liberation, one has to follow the Threefold Path (tri-marga):  Karma-marga (right action),  Jnana-marga (right knowledge) and Bhakti-marga (right devotion)

what doe Deva & Devi mean?

they are divine beings: -            Hinduism has many gods & goddesses but not required to honor exclusively honor any specific divine form

o   Idea that divine is one

o   Most Hindu’s worship Visnu (protecting god), Siva ( destroying god) or some form of the Devi (mother goddess)

o   A devotee’s favorite personal god= istadevata

o   Worship was first through sacrificial fire rituals, later through consecrated images (images that have been made holy)

What does brahman-Atman & Maya mean?

“ultimate reality and self” & “enchantment”: o   The Path of Knowledge= Upanishads
= say there is only one divine principle= brahman (is the ultimate absolute, goes beyond any form and description) Brahman is said tob e no different from atman (the self)

o   Liberation= realizing that Brahman= Atman
- not possible because of ignorance (avidya)= biggest cause of suffering! And maya (delusion)

What does Maya mean?

“delusion”: -            Upanishads say two different things about Maya:

o    It is a mysterious, wonderous, deceptive but divine power→ the world is a field of divine play

o   Energy that produces an illusory manifestation of the universe (kind of virtual reality game)

In which periods is the history of India vastgelegd?

1) Formative period 2500-1500 BCE (Harappa/Indus valley period & Vedic/Aryan period)
2) Upanishadic period 800-400 BCE
3) Classical period 400BCE- 600CE (begining of devotional tradition to Visnu, Siva & Godess, origin of Mahabarata & Ramayana & Puranas, begin of non-vedic trad such as jainism & buddhism)
4) Medieval period 600-1600 (rise of tantric traditions)
5) Moder period 1600-now (rise & fall of Muslim empire & christian empire)

Explain Vedism shortly

• Based on the Veda’s

• idea’s about duty & order

• structure based on casts

• does not refer to images or temples

Explain Bhramanism shortly

• Developed from Vedism + other religious and social practices

• Bhramanas (priests) are very important

• does have images & temples

• based on Veda’s, Ramayana & Mahabarata, puranas, dharmasastras

What is Medievel/ Theisic Hinduism?

• is characterized by devotional movements to locally known deities & great Hindu deities (Visnu, Siva, Goddess(Devi)), with a corresponding construction of temple structures

• roots in the Bhagavat Gita

• later had many branches

• parallell= rise of tantra

Wa houd de tantrische variant of Theistic Hinduism in?

• mostly Sakta Tantra (= verering esp Devi)

• Anti-Veda

• Use of Sadhana: mantra’s, yantra’s (sacred geomatric diagrams), mudras & yoga

• often misinterpretated bcs of the left handed-path (only enlisting borderline, anit-social individuals and requires rituals which require the five forbidden substances (alcohol, meat, sexual stuff, grain, fish

How are deities described in the Veda’s?

• no single fixed pantheon of gods

• “deva”= not specific god but more the overall divine power in general

• The devas are simultaniously physical and psychological forces of nature, personification of abstract ideas, living realities etc.

Say some popular gods (except for the “big Three”)

• Indra: cosmic power, powerfull, warlike,..

• Agni: god of fire, priest of sacrifice, inner fire of human aspiration, mediator between human & divine

• Varuna: King of heaven and earth

What does Visnu stand for? (+ function)

• “All-pervading” (allomvattend)

• = supreme ruler, loving, powerfull, auspicious, perserver, caring

Which forms does Visnu take ? (not avatars)

1) supreme

2) cosmic

3) divine incarnatioins

4) inner control

5) images

Which incarnations/ avatars does Visnu have? (name 6 out of the 10)

• Krsna

• Rama

• Fish

• Tortoise

• Boar

• Buddha

Iconografphy of Visnu?

• Blue body

• Yellow garnments

• 4 arms

• Holds a disc, lotus, club and conch

• accompanied by Laksmi or Sri

• Home: heaven Vaikuntha

• vehicle: the eagle Garunda

Voor wat staat Siva?+ functie+ manifestations

• “the auspious one”

• cosmic destroyer, creative lord of dancing, the great ascetic, symbol of sensuality (paradoxical bcs of polarity)

• manifestations= Mahadeva, Nataraja, Mahayogi, Daksinamurti

iconography of Siva?

• 3 eyes

• blue neck

• half woman, half man

• naked

• ascetic

• holds a trident (drietand), drum, club, deer skin

• matted hairlocks

• accompanied by Parvati

• Place: mount Kailasa

• vehicle: the bull nandi

How does hindu dharma see Devi/ Mahadevi?

• “the female divine principle” (= the overall female goddess)

• appears in different forms but seen as 1 god

• early Vedic tradition= no all-inclusive great goddes

• -since 1000 CE= fully worship of great goddess

Name some manifestations of Devi

• Laksmi: consort of Vishnu, goddes of wealth & fortune

• Parvati: consort of Siva, has multiple forms: 1) Durga: warrior 2) Kali: fierce& destructive ( black body, naked, red tongue, skulls)

• Sarasvati: goddess of learning/knowledge

• other forms such as aniconi images (bv stones, poles, weapons etc), as yantra (diagrams), as yoni (female genitals), as natural phenomena such as rivers, trees and mountains

other deities?

Other deities are the elephant-headed ganese (son of Parvati & siva) and hanuman (servant of Rama in ramayana) depicted as a massive orange-hued iconic form, sinimar to a kangur monkey

How was the cosmos made?

several options:

• made through a huge battle

• born from a womb

• intentionally made by Visnu or Siva

• popular story: Visnu floated on the snake Ananta in the primeval waters, from his navel grew a lotus from which brahma emerged reciting the four Veda’s with his four mouths, creating “the egg of Brahma” which contains the world with their intire cosmos

• A famous model in the Puranas maps the cosmos with a sacred mountain  (Mt Meru)in the center and seven ever-expanding cencentric oceans and continents surrounding it

What is Mahayuga?

“cycles of four ages”:

 According tot he tradition, time endlessly repeats itself in cycles of billions of years. There are 4 ages (yuga): 1) gold age 2) silver age 3) bronze age 4) dark age (kali)
→ now in the dark age (began by the Mahabharata war in 3102 BCE)
→ 4 yugas complete= 4,32 million years= mahayuga

-1000 mahayugas= 1 day of Brahma → pralaya & equally long night (everything is destroyed)

What is Sruti?

“that which is heard”= texts that are regarded as revealed, eternal, authorless, heard by rsi then orally transmitted

What is smrti?

=   recollections of texts, includes the Ramayana & mahabharata, Bhagavad Gita, other Purannas, the Dharmasastras & Dharmasutras, and the Tantras
- Hindu’s get most of their knowledge from smrti

Name the four greatest Sruti texts

• Veda’s (Rg Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, Atharva Veda)

• Brahmanas

• Aranyakas

• Upanishads

Name important Smrti texts (8)

• Vedangas

• Kalpasutras

• Dharmasastras & Dharmasutras

• Itihasa

• Ramayana

• Mahabaratha

• Bhagavad Gita

• Puranas

What are the Veda’s about+ some key concepts?

-1500 BCE (or older)

-about divine powers, performance of rites, origin stories, ethics, philosophy

- key concepts: rta, dharma, karma, samsara, atman, brahman, prakti, maya

Different levels of meaning & interpretation (modern times: “primitive prayers”, monotheistic)

What are the 4 samghita’s (collections of Veda’s)?

• Rg Veda

• Sama Veda

• Yajur Veda

• Atharva Veda

give context & explanation of Rg Veda

o   Oldest samhita, verses

o   Divided into 10 books and has 1028 hymns

o   Hymns mostly adressed to Agni, Indra and soma

o   Main priest= hotr

Originally 21 sakhas (versions) but only 1 survived

give context & explanation of Sama Veda

o   Songs set to fixed melodies

o   Mostly from the Rg Veda

o   Priests= udgar

o   1000 sakhas but only 3 survived

give context & explanation of yajur Veda

o   Sacrificial formulas set to fixed melodies

o   Priest= adhvaryu (became the brahmana priest later)

o   Best preserved veda

o   Twe recensions: black (krsna) and white (sukla)

give context & explanation of Atharva Veda

o   Collection of auspicious “whit” magic incantations and terrible “black” magoc curses

o   Is the wisdom of the fire priests (atharvan)

o   Priests= atharvan

o   Also known as the Brahmaveda

o   Is excluded from the other Vedas

give context & explanation of Brahmanas

-            About “that fundamental principle or power know as Brahman”

-            Involves mantras (empowered sacred words) and priests (brahmana)

-            Written mostly in prose in stead of verse

-            Explain th meaning of a given mantra, in which rituals to use it and how

-            Trace the origins and importance of individual ritual acts

-            Connected with the srauta rituals

-            Shift to internalization

give context & explanation of Aranyakas

-            “forest books”

-            Give mystical , esoteric explanations of secret pr dangerous information concerning fire sacrifices that thansformed into material for meditation

give context & explanation of Upanishads

-            Shift from external ritual→ internal meditation

-            “sitting nearby the teacher” (literally)

-            800-300 BCE

-            Focus on knowledge of atman and brahman

o   “atman is brahman” (if u know this, u can escape samsara)

-            Riddles, debates, dialogues (zie ppt 3 of boek p 37)

-            The upanisads form the concluding part of the Veda so they are called “vedanta”

-            They are not uniform and not one author

Give some context and explanation of the Vedangas

-            Created +- at same time as upanisads (800-400 BCE)

-            Auxilliary sciences

-            A guide to correct pronounciationand performances from the upanisads (= importance of correct recitation)

-            6 vedangas (“limbs of the veda”):

o   Siksa: pronounciation

o   Chandas: metres

o   Vyakarana: grammar

o   Nirukta: etymology

o   Kalpa: ritual practice

o   Jyotisa: astronomy/ astrology

Give some context and explanation of kalpasutras

-            600 BCE

-            Collection of aphorisms dealing with ritual performances

-            4 types:

o   Srautasutra ( rule of performing complex rituals of Vedic sacrifices)

o   Grhyasutra (explains the rules of performing domestic rites)

o   Sulbasutra ( how to make the geometric calculations for proper construction of ritual arena)

o   Dharmasutra ( rules fort he conduct of life)

Give some context and explanation of Dharmasastras & Dharmasutras

-            Dharmasastra:

o   Law books

o   Most famous tekst= Manusmrti/ Manavadharmasastra

§  200 CE

§  Encyclopedic

§  Model for life

-         Dharmasutra:

   - Manuals on dharma (rules of conduct)

o   Adress duty of people at various stages of life  (right duties of king)

o   Discuss purification, funeral, hospitality, daily rites etc

+- juridical

Give some context and explanation of Itihasa

-            “ the two Hindu epics” (= Ramayana and Mahabharata)

-            History of the two epics

-            Very authoritative, big influencial role in everyday life of most Hindus

Give some context and explanation of the Ramayana

-            Story of the life and adventures of Rama

-            Athor: valmiki

-            Very popular

-            Sourcebook & idealization of dharma

-            Rama= Visnu → key scripture for vaisnavas ( visnu cult)

In later adaptations, Rama is no longer “jus tan avatara of Visnu” but a supreme parabrahman

Give some context and explanation of the Mahabharata

-            “Great war of the descendants of Bharata” (bharata= india)

-            Encyclopedic work, longest poem in the world (+- 100 000 verses)

-            Author: Vyasa

-            Discusses ethically difficult choices: fratricidal war (cousins agains cousins), dubious tactics

-            Beginning of Kali yuga (dark time)

-            Krnsa introduced (eight avatara of Visnu)

Give some context and explanation of Bhagavad Gita

-            Part of the Mahabharata

-            Very influencial in early modern period- present

-            Two main charackters: Arjuna & Krsna

-            Focus on one’s own dharma

-            Death= only outer shell, inner shell (soul)= eternal

-            They reject the idea of pure renunciation (alles materialiseren en loslaten) bcs krsna calls it “avoiding worldly resposibilities

-            Being into the world but detached

-            Krsna has 3 paths to release the inner self from samsara and to save Arjuna from his moral dilemma (see story book p 42-43):

o   Karma-yoga (selfless action)

o   Bhakti-yoga (devotion)

o   Jnana-yoga (divine wisdom)

-            In upanisads: describe brahman, in Bhagavad Gita: krsna is highest spirit

-            Many interpretations & commentaries

Give some context and explanation of the Puranas

-            “ancient”

-            300 BCE- 1000 CE

-            Author: Vyasa

-            Concerns creation of the cosmos, traditions, kings, rituals (kinda everything)

-            18 major Puranas, 18 secondary puranas

-            Deal with 5 topics (panca-laksana): creation, recreation, lineage, epochs, future lineages

-            Availible yto everyone= moreaccessible & inclusive

What is Vernacular literature?

most Hindu literature = sanskrit, but not overyone couls read or speak
sankrit → literature in Tamil

- about Tamil (country) devotionalism (towards Alvars and Nayanmars)

Hindi bhakti

Name the 6 philosophical schools

• Nyaya-Vaisesika school

• Samkhya-Yoga school

• Mimamsa-Vedanta school

General idea of the Nyaya-Vaisesika school?

Knowledge& understanding of reality

General idea of the Samkhya-Yoga school

release to moksa through understanding spirit & matter

General Idea of Mimamsa-Vedanta school?

Interpretation of Veda’s

general idea of Nyaya school?

• “logical reasoning”

• focus on epistemology (kennisleer) & debats

• Nyayasutra

General idea of Vaisesika school?

• focus on ontology (zijnsleer)

• pluralistic realism

• nature= atomic

• Vaisesikasutra

general idea of Samkhya school?

• liberation through discrimination of spirit & matter

• world is two folded (spirit vs matter)

• matter is composed of 3 elements

• Samkhyasutra

General idea of Yoga school?

• mental rest= liberation

• rest through meditation and concentrating and yoga (action)

Gerenal idea pf Mimamsa school?

• accepts Vedic authority (real vedic school)

• focus on rituals, offers, right behavior (= early vedic)

• nature of religious dharma

  • religious duty can only be achieved by scripture

General idea of Vedanta school?

• “vedanta”= concluding parts of the Veda (= the upanishads)

• foucs on Brahman, atman etc

• Brahman is the ultimate principle

• has different schools