HS2610G Chapter 1

What are societies organized on the basis of?

Societies are organized on the basis of economic and political ideas; ideas structure what we do, what we believe, and how we live.

What does philosophy examine?

Philosophy examines ideas; it is a rational activity that considers the nature of thought and belief and what is thought and believed.

What does philosophy do with beliefs and concepts?

Philosophy identifies beliefs, clarifies concepts, and makes judgments about whether beliefs should be held and whether the concepts make sense.

How do philosophers make ideas visible?

Philosophers make ideas visible in order to examine and evaluate them through the presentation and analysis of arguments.

What similarities does Pojman identify between philosophers and scientists?

According to Pojman, philosophers and scientists both construct theories, test hypotheses, and look at evidence.

What is the difference between philosophy and science?

Philosophy uses rational argumentation, while science uses empirical verification.

What is ethics?

Ethics is a branch of philosophy that considers how humans should treat one another and how societies should be organized.

What is theoretical ethics?

Theoretical ethics considers how we ought to act, what our responsibilities are to one another, and what sort of people we should try to become.

What is bioethics?

Bioethics is a branch of applied ethics that applies theoretical considerations to specific issues connected to the body, medicine, and technological developments that affect human beings.

What is an ethical dilemma?

An ethical dilemma occurs whenever we must make a decision and none of the options are entirely satisfactory because each option violates a value we believe in.

How does ethical theory help with ethical dilemmas?

Ethical theory helps us think clearly about the issue and make rational decisions; it helps us become conscientious moral agents by alerting us to our obligations and guiding our choices.

Why are many people uncomfortable with moral judgments?

Many people are uncomfortable making moral judgments, especially about other people's choices, because it can seem disrespectful when actions are tied to personal or cultural beliefs.

What are the two approaches to morality that try to capture a non-judgmental or relativistic perspective?

The two approaches are ethical relativism and subjectivism.

What are the roots of modern ethical relativism?

Modern ethical relativism has roots in anthropology, where anthropologists observed that different cultures have different beliefs about right and wrong, and that approaches to moral issues come from traditions and laws.

What are examples of cultural differences in moral standards?

The death penalty is not used in Canada because it is seen as morally wrong, but it is still used in the United States where some see it as morally right; standards of dress, sexual morality, and marriage also differ across cultures.

What is cultural relativism?

Cultural relativism is cultural variation in moral standards.

What is the difference between cultural relativism and ethical relativism?

Cultural relativism is descriptive because it observes that cultures do have different moral beliefs and practices; ethical or moral relativism is normative because it claims that what is morally right or wrong depends on culture or society and that there are no universal moral truths.

What is ethical relativism?

Ethical relativism is the belief that we cannot make moral judgments about what people do when their actions are rooted in cultural practices and beliefs.

What did Benedict observe about morality across cultures?

Benedict observed that many human behaviours considered morally acceptable in some cultures are considered morally wrong in others.

What did Benedict observe about ecstatic experiences?

Benedict observed that individuals with a capacity for ecstatic experiences may be seen as mentally ill in cultures with no place for this trait, while in other cultures they may be seen as gifted.

What conclusion did Benedict reach about morality?

Benedict concluded that what is morally good and bad is culturally determined and that there is no universal account of morality.

What is ethical subjectivism?

Ethical subjectivism is the view that each individual creates their own morality and that there are no universal ethical principles that apply to everyone within a culture.

How do ethical subjectivists view moral judgments?

Ethical subjectivists see moral judgments as things where no real argument is possible; they are like preferences, such as liking coffee better than tea.

What extreme example shows the problem with subjectivism?

Subjectivism implies that Adolf Hitler is as moral as Gandhi as long as each believes he is living by his chosen principles.

Why are ethical relativism and subjectivism inadequate approaches to morality?

They can be used to justify the morally unjustifiable, and they shut down moral conversation.

How can ethical relativism justify the morally unjustifiable?

If most members of a culture share hatred of a minority group, ethical relativism would force us to treat that hatred as morally acceptable.

How can subjectivism justify the morally unjustifiable?

Subjectivism would mean we cannot say child molesters have done anything wrong as long as they believe what they are doing is right.

Why do relativism and subjectivism shut down moral conversation?

Ethicists need to consider what people ought to believe and do, not just what individuals actually believe or what cultures happen to believe; this cannot be pursued if we are relativists or subjectivists.

Why can ethical relativists and subjectivists not defend tolerance and respect?

Ethical relativists and subjectivists cannot give arguments for tolerance and respect because relativism treats these as only cultural values with no universal validity, while subjectivism treats them as personal preferences.

What issue must bioethics consider about culture and medical decision-making?

Bioethics must determine when and how cultural backgrounds need to be accommodated and when individual preferences and beliefs should prevail in medical decision-making.

What are the five ethical theories discussed in bioethics?

The five ethical theories are utilitarianism, Kantianism, virtue ethics, feminist ethics, and liberalism.

What are the "big three" ethical theories?

The big three are utilitarianism, Kantianism, and virtue ethics.

What feminist approaches are discussed in bioethics?

The feminist approaches are feminist bioethics and ethics of care.

Why is relying on only one ethical theory a problem?

Following the guidelines of one theory in all cases may produce results that seem wrong because ethics is so complex that no single theory can capture it entirely.

What role do case narratives play in bioethics?

In bioethics, case narratives present short stories about people struggling with moral dilemmas and ask us to be the decision-maker; they make ethical issues real and test ethical theories.

What question does utilitarianism ask?

Utilitarianism asks, "What happens if I perform this action?" It focuses on the consequences of our actions.

What question does Kantianism ask?

Kantianism asks, "Is this action right or wrong, morally speaking, regardless of the consequences?" It holds that some actions are simply wrong and some are simply right.

What question does virtue ethics ask?

Virtue ethics asks, "What kind of person should I be?" It directs attention away from actions and toward those who perform them.

What question do feminist approaches ask?

Feminist approaches ask, "What might a female perspective add to our ethical understanding?" They question whether women are treated as full moral agents in traditional ethical theory.

What question does liberalism ask?

Liberalism asks, "What is it that individuals want?" It tells us to respect people's choices whenever possible.

When did utilitarianism develop and why is this context important?

Utilitarianism developed in the 19th century during the Industrial Revolution, when conditions for the working class were very bad, old values were being challenged, and people looked for secular and scientific solutions instead of religious ones.

How is utilitarianism radical?

Utilitarianism is radical because it is scientific and egalitarian, and it makes no reference to God as the source of moral commands.

What other major ideas developed around the same time as utilitarianism?

Utilitarianism developed during the same time as Marxism and Darwinism.

Who were the two main utilitarian thinkers?

The two main utilitarian thinkers were Jeremy Bentham, 1748-1832, and John Stuart Mill, 1806-1873.

How did Bentham see utilitarianism?

Bentham saw utilitarianism as a practical tool of social reform and as a way of scientifically determining which action or policy is morally preferable.

What is Bentham's Hedonic Calculus?

The Hedonic Calculus is a guide to moral decision-making designed to help individuals in daily life and politicians in policy decisions.

How does Bentham's Hedonic Calculus work?

When choosing an action, we imagine the consequences, sum all pleasures on one side and all pains on the other, and determine whether the balance gives a general good tendency or evil tendency for the total number of people concerned.

How does Bentham treat different sources of pleasure?

Bentham makes no distinction between sources of pleasure or whose pleasures they are; pushpin is as good as poetry, and hockey is as good as opera.

How does Bentham treat different people's pleasures?

Bentham does not weigh the pleasures of important people more heavily than the pleasures of unimportant people; his theory is very egalitarian.

Why is Bentham's inclusion of animals important?

Bentham included animals because he argued that what matters is not the ability to reason or speak, but the ability to suffer.

What criticisms were made of Bentham's utilitarianism?

Bentham was criticized for refusing to distinguish between sources of pleasure, including animals, promoting a "swinish" philosophy fit for pigs, counting pleasures and pains too simply, and not excluding pleasures such as the pleasures of rapists.

What does Bentham's utilitarianism say has intrinsic value?

Bentham's utilitarianism says pleasure is the only thing intrinsically valuable, meaning good in itself.

According to Bentham's utilitarianism, why do money, knowledge, friendship, rights, and justice matter?

They matter only if they increase pleasure or reduce pain.

Why is it a problem to say only pleasure has intrinsic value?

It seems wrong because love can have value even when it involves sacrifice, suffering, or grief, and justice can have value even when punishing someone causes pain rather than pleasure.

What measurement problem exists in Bentham's theory?

Bentham claimed to offer a scientific approach to ethics, but it is unclear what units are used in the calculations or how they are derived.

What are "hedons" or "utiles"?

Hedons or utiles are the units utilitarians use to measure pleasure or utility, but there is no actual derivation of them.

What is an example of the measurement problem in utilitarianism?

It is unclear how many utiles should be assigned to reading versus watching TV.

What does Mill call the principle of utility?

Mill calls the principle of utility the Greatest Happiness Principle.

What is Mill's Greatest Happiness Principle?

Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness and wrong as they tend to promote the reverse of happiness.

How does Mill define happiness and unhappiness?

Happiness means pleasure and the absence of pain; unhappiness means pain and the absence of pleasure.

What does Mill say has intrinsic value?

Only happiness has intrinsic value; everything else is valuable only because it promotes happiness.

What does Mill say about pleasure and freedom from pain?

Pleasure and freedom from pain are the only things desirable as ends, and all desirable things are desirable either for their own pleasure or as a means to pleasure and the absence of pain.

Whose happiness matters in Mill's utilitarianism?

The utilitarian standard is not the agent's own happiness, but the happiness of all concerned.

What does Mill require of the utilitarian moral agent?

The conscientious utilitarian moral agent should be strictly impartial, like a disinterested and benevolent spectator, and should not count their own happiness more heavily than anyone else's.

What action should a utilitarian choose?

A utilitarian should choose the action that produces the most happiness for the greatest number of people.

How does Mill differ from Bentham on pleasures?

Unlike Bentham, Mill argues that pleasures are qualitatively different depending on their origin, and that some pleasures should count more heavily than others.

How does Mill decide which pleasures are more desirable?

Of two pleasures, if all or almost all people who have experienced both give a decided preference to one, that pleasure is more desirable.

What are Mill's higher pleasures?

Higher pleasures are those that use the higher faculties, such as the development and exercise of the intellect and aesthetic capacities.

What are Mill's lower pleasures?

Lower pleasures are pleasures provided by entertainment and the satisfaction of bodily needs and desires.

What examples show Mill's distinction between higher and lower pleasures?

Poetry is more valuable than pushpin, opera is more valuable than hockey, and a gourmet meal is more valuable than a Whopper and fries.

Why does Mill's higher/lower pleasure distinction help utilitarianism?

It helps Mill avoid Bentham's "swinish philosophy" problem and may allow utilitarians to exclude dubious pleasures, like the pleasures of rapists, or weigh them very lightly.

What problem does Mill's distinction between higher and lower pleasures create?

It makes utilitarianism more complicated because ranking pleasures seems to require a standard independent of utilitarianism, suggesting that things besides pleasure may be intrinsically valuable.

What criticism does Rosenstand make of Mill's higher pleasures argument?

Rosenstand argues that Mill stacks the argument in his own favour because if people prefer lower pleasures, Mill can say they lost the capacity for higher pleasures and ignore their opinion.

What does Mill mean by saying it is better to be an unhappy human than a happy pig?

Mill means that people with higher intellectual and emotional capacities may be harder to satisfy, but their form of life is still better because they can experience deeper and more meaningful fulfillment.

Why might the fool or pig disagree with Mill?

The fool or pig only knows their limited perspective, while a thoughtful human understands both simple and complex forms of happiness and can judge which kind of life is more valuable.

Is Mill's utilitarianism selfish?

No; Mill stresses that utilitarianism is not about maximizing your own happiness, but about the happiness of everyone affected, with each person's happiness counting equally.

How does Mill connect utilitarianism to moral rules?

Mill connects utilitarianism to treating others as you would want to be treated and loving your neighbour as yourself.

What does Mill think society should do to support utilitarian morality?

Mill thinks society should design laws and social systems so that what benefits individuals also benefits everyone, and education should teach people to link their own happiness with others' well-being.

What is act utilitarianism?

Act utilitarianism says we should choose the action that produces the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people.

What is a major criticism of act utilitarianism?

A major criticism is that nothing is inherently forbidden and obligations to particular people are not accounted for.

Why does act utilitarianism imply nothing is inherently forbidden?

If many people gain happiness from watching a small number of people tortured, humiliated, and killed on live television, act utilitarianism could say sacrificing them is morally acceptable or required.

What objection is made against act utilitarianism and forbidden actions?

There are some things we should not do regardless of the good consequences that might result.

How does act utilitarianism treat particular obligations?

Act utilitarianism says we cannot weigh our own happiness or the happiness of people close to us more heavily than strangers' happiness, so we may have to sacrifice ourselves or loved ones for a greater number of people.

What is rule utilitarianism?

Rule utilitarianism requires us to follow rules that, if adopted by society, would produce the most good for the most people.

When are individual acts right in rule utilitarianism?

Individual acts are right when they conform to the moral code that would produce more overall good than alternative moral codes.

What are examples of rule utilitarian rules?

Keep promises unless great harm will arise; only punish the guilty; meet the needs of your own children before meeting the needs of others.

Why is rule utilitarianism more compatible with obligations to particular people?

Rule utilitarianism allows rules that account for special obligations, and societies that respect such rules are happier than societies that do not.

What is the measurement problem in utilitarianism?

It is difficult to compare the utility of different actions and equally difficult to calculate the utility produced by particular rules.

What is incommensurability?

Incommensurability is the lack of a common measure or standard for comparison; two things are incommensurable when they have no common elements that can serve as a basis of comparison.

How does utilitarianism force us to compare incommensurable things?

Utilitarianism asks us to compare values that may have no shared measure, such as happiness, suffering, friendship, justice, or life.

What solution has been proposed for incommensurability, and why does it fail?

Some philosophers assign monetary value to incommensurable things by replacing utiles with dollars, but money is still incommensurable with things we value most, like babies or friendship.

Why does utilitarianism make morality depend on things outside our control?

Utilitarianism requires decisions based on what is likely to happen in the future, but future consequences are unpredictable.

What must someone know to judge an action by its consequences?

They must know all possible consequences of the act and all consequences of every other equally available action.

Why does the "best guess" solution create a problem for utilitarianism?

Some say we should follow our best guess about consequences, but this does not fit Bentham and Mill's goal of a rational and scientific ethical theory.

Why are justice and rights a problem for utilitarianism?

Justice and rights place limits on what we may do to people regardless of good consequences, but utilitarianism treats happiness as the only intrinsic value.

What does justice require?

Justice requires treating people fairly, not punishing the innocent, and not sacrificing some people merely to benefit others.

What are rights?

Rights assert that humans have inherent worth and dignity, no matter who they are.

Why can act utilitarianism not properly account for justice and rights?

Act utilitarianism respects justice and rights only when doing so produces more happiness than violating them.

Why can rule utilitarianism not fully account for justice and rights?

Rule utilitarianism can include justice and rights in rules, but it treats them as important because they produce long-term happiness, not because they matter independently.

What organ-selling example criticizes rule utilitarianism?

A society may initially become happy by executing criminals and selling their organs, but later become fearful and unhappy; rule utilitarianism can reject the policy only once happiness decreases, while critics say executing innocent people was wrong from the start.