Psych learning unit

classical conditioning

Learning through association made between a previously neutral stimulus and a reflex response

Response

Behaviour that emerges as a result of a stimulus

Reflex response

An automatic and almost instantaneous response to a stimulus. Does not require conscious thought

Neutral stimulus

A stimulus that on its own does not elicit a particular response

Unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus with the inherent ability to elicit a reflex response

Unconditioned response

The reflexive reaction to a specific unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned stimulus

A stimulus that elicits a particular response due to learning (result)

Conditioned response

A reflex response elicited by a previous neutral stimulus as a consequence of learning

Aquisition

When the neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus and the association is formed (process)

Stimulus Generalisation

When a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus elicits the same response as the conditioned stimulus

Discrimination

When a stimulus does not elicit the conditioned response because it differs significantly from the original stimulus

Extinction

When repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus on its own ceases to elicit a response, as there is no longer an association between the conditioned stimulus (previously neutral) and the unconditioned stimulus

Spontaneous recovery

The sudden reappearance of a previously extinct conditioned response after the unconditioned stimulus has been absent for some time

Pavlov's Dog aim

to investigate classical conditioning in dogs

Pavlov's dog subject and materials

Dogs. Meat powder, a bell and Pavlov apparatus

Pavlov dog design

experimental IV: Presentation of the stimuli DV: Times at which the do salivated and the amount of saliva

Pavlov dog procedure

1. Dog placed in pavlov apparatus

2. Bell rung = salivation did not occur (NS)

3. Meat powder was given (UCS) = saliva (UCR)

4. Bell was rung just before providing dog with meat power

5. Repeated multiple times with saliva produced each time

6. When bell sounded salivation occurred (CS)

Pavlov dog key findings

The dogs leant to associate a neutral stimulus with a reflex stimulus leading to the neutral response becoming conditioned

Pavlov dog contributions to psych

Data quantitative with added empirical evidence, others can replicate study

Provides a link between physiological and psychological process

Impact the understanding of learning within the field of psych

Pavlov dog criticism

Cannot generalise results from dogs to humans

Dog were harmed = animal ethics broken

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner 1920) aim

To assess whether a child can be conditioned to feel fear through the simultaneous presentation of a white rate and the loud noise of a hammer hitting a bar

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner 1920) participant

11 month old baby Albert

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner 1920) materials

White rat, rabbit, seal skin coat, Santa Claus mask, metal pole, hammer

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner 1920) Design

Experimental IV: Exposure to stimuli and pairing of stimuli DV: Observed emotional and behavioural response

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner 1920) procedure

1. Albert is seated and presented with a white rat (NS). No fear response elicited

2. After NS was presented, metal pole was hit with a hammer causing loud noise(UCS). Albert scared of loud noise showed fear response (crying, crawling away) (UCR)

3. The rat was presented simultaneously with the loud noise. He associated rat now with fear (CR)

4. Albert then exposed to similar stimuli that shared characteristics to rat. All caused the CR of fear

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner 1920) findings

Albert was conditioned to feel fear, due to pairing rat (NS) with noise (CS)

Albert generalised his emotional response to all similar stimuli presented, generalisation

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner 1920) contribution to psych

Gave clear demonstration of how classical conditioning can be used to create a fear response. Led to research on phobia and the treatment of phobia

Ethical debate. Informed consent need to include all details of study

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner 1920) criticisms

Albert psychologically harmed, emotionally distressed by stimulus

Alberts mothers was not fully informed on the psychological risks, could not of given informed consent

Operant conditioning

Type of learning whereby the consequence of the behaviour determines whether it will be repeated or not. Voluntary behaviour

Reinforcement

A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour repeating

Punishment

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour repeating

Three phase model

ABC Antecedent Behaviour Consequence

Antecedent

Internal or external conditioned that are presented immediately prior to a behaviour/response

Behaviour

The observed behaviour resulting from antecedent

Consequence

The outcome of the behaviour

Positive

adding stimulus

Negative

Removing stimulus

Positive reinforcement

Adding desirable stimulus

Negative reinforcement

Removing an undesirable stimulus

Positive punishment

Adding an undesirable stimulus

Negative punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus

Reinforcement schedules

Continuous and intermittent

Continuous reinforcement schedule

Reinforcement of desired behaviour is given every time. Highly effective for a new behaviour. treat given to puppy every time it sits

Intermittent reinforcement schedule

Once the behaviour is learnt we can use various schedules of reinforcement to further strengthen the behaviour

Fixed ratio

Reinforcement takes place following a set number of responses

Fixed interval

Reinforcement take places a set time of intervals, time

Variable ratio

Reinforcement take place after an unpredictable number of responses

Variable Interval

Reinforcement takes placed a irregular time intervals

Law and effect (Thorndike 1898) aim

To examine the influence reinforcement had on behaviour of cats trying to escape a puzzel box to reach food

Law and effect (Thorndike 1898) subject and material

13 cats. Puzzle boxes, cat food, clock for timekeeping

Law and effect (Thorndike 1898) design

Experimental IV: Number of times cates were placed in puzzle box DV: The length of time it took for cats to escape the box

Law and effect (Thorndike 1898) Procedure

1. Cat placed in the puzzle box hungry. Food placed outside of box. Box had slits cats see food.

2. Door closed, mechanism set to shut door

3. Time it took for cats to solve puzzle and exit box recorded

4. Repeated many times using multiple cats and boxes

Law and effect (Thorndike 1898) findings

-Cats used trial and error to first solve box. Once placed back in box they made conscious decision to push lever and escape

-Food = positive reinforcement = operant conditioning

-The second time cat in box, time was shorter to exit

Law and effect (Thorndike 1898) contribution to psych

-Foundation on which theorist build their understanding of operant conditioning

-Skinner developed his work with pigeons from Thorndike study

Law and effect (Thorndike 1898) criticism

Based on animals, can’t generalise to humans

Study not meet modern ethical guidelines, cats distressed and hungry in box

The behaviour or organisms - Skinners box experiment (1938) aim

To demonstrate the process of operant conditioning in pigeons

The behaviour or organisms - Skinners box experiment (1938) subject and materials

8 pigeons. Cage with timber, food hopper and bird feed.

The behaviour or organisms - Skinners box experiment (1938) design

Experimental. IV: Time interval at which food was released DV: Observed behaviour of the pigeons

The behaviour or organisms - Skinners box experiment (1938) procedure

1. Pigeons were hungry and then placed into the box for a few minutes each day

2. A timer was programmed to present food to the pigeon at a set interval via a hopped that tipped down through a cage wall

3. The interval at which the hopper would tip was manipulated. The length of time that the hopper remained lowed was 5 seconds = fixed interval. Schedules of positive reinforcement

The behaviour or organisms - Skinners box experiment (1938) findings

-Operant conditioning was observed in 7 of the 8 pigeons. Each pigeon was conditioned to perform an unique behaviour, whatever action they were doing when the cage tipped. Turing anti-clock wise

-Shorter intervals between food = more effective 15 sec

-No cause and effect relationship found

The behaviour or organisms - Skinners box experiment (1938) contribution to psych

-Animals can develop ‘superstitious’ behaviour similar to humans

-Cause and effect relationship not required to condition behaviour

The behaviour or organisms - Skinners box experiment (1938) criticism

Pigeons mistreated, starved. Weighed 25% less then they originally did

Animal results, can’t generalise to humans

Observational learning

Where the learner watches a model, notices the consequences of their behaviour and then decides whether they will imitate their behaviour

Model

The personal who sets and example for others to imitate through their actions

Learner

The person who is observing the model

Bandura (1977) mediating process

1. Attention

2. Retention

3. Reproduction

4. Motivation

Attention

Attention must be paid to the model’s behaviour and its consequences. Learner need to find the model interesting enough to pay attention to them. If the model shares characteristic to learner or is liked by learner, the leaner is more likely to pay attention

Retention

The learnt behaviour must be stored in memory as mental representation so that the observed learning can be utilised at a later time. The learner needs to be able to remember the models observed behaviour.

Reproduction

The learning needs to have the physical and cognitive abilities to reproduced the behaviour they have observed.

Motivation

The learner needs an incentive or reason to repeat the modelled behaviour

Positive Vicarious reinforcement

Positive consequences received by the model increase the likelihood of the learner imitating the model behaviour.

Negative Vicarious reinforcement

Negative consequences for the models behaviour decrease the likelihood of the learner imitating the behaviour

Banduras Observation Learning theory (1977) strengths

-Trial and error operant conditioning is not suitable for all type of learning

-There is empirical evidence to support observational learning

Banduras Observation Learning theory (1977) application

Teachers can use observational learning, specifically vicarious reinforcement to promote desirable behaviours and crease undesirable behaviours

Bobo doll experiment Bandura Ross and Ross (1961) aim

To determine whether children who observe an adult behaving aggressively will imitate the aggressive behaviour

Bobo doll experiment Bandura Ross and Ross (1961) Participants

36 boys and 36 girls conveniently sampled from Stanford University. All between 3-4 years old

Bobo doll experiment Bandura Ross and Ross (1961) materials

Bobo doll, craft items, mallet with peg board, dark gun, tea set, bears, a ball, cars, behaviour checklist and clock

Bobo doll experiment Bandura Ross and Ross (1961) design

Experimental IV: Exposure of the children to an aggressive adult model vs non aggressive adult model DV: The observed aggressive behaviour

Bobo doll experiment Bandura Ross and Ross (1961) allocation

Random into 1 of 3 groups, aggressive, non aggressive and control

Bobo doll experiment Bandura Ross and Ross (1961) physical aggressive behaviour

sitting on doll, punching doll, throwing in air, hitting with mallet and kicking

Bobo doll experiment Bandura Ross and Ross (1961) verbal aggressive behaviour

“He keeps coming back for more” “He sure is a tough fella” “pow” “sock him in the nose”

Bobo doll experiment Bandura Ross and Ross (1961) procedure 1

Child placed in room with model. One half with same sex other half with opposite sex. Model is aggressive towards bobo doll

Bobo doll experiment Bandura Ross and Ross (1961) procedure 2

After 10 min exposure, experimenter takes children to second room with desirable toys. They tell kid that they are reserved for other kids, Purposely anger child

Bobo doll experiment Bandura Ross and Ross (1961) procedure 3

Third experimental room. Each child is observed for 20 min by a researcher through a 2 way mirror. Researcher used pre-determined criteria

Bobo doll experiment Bandura Ross and Ross (1961) findings

-Children who observed the aggressive model were more likely to mimic the aggressive behaviour. Support theory

-Boys more physically aggressive, equal in gender for verbal aggression

-Higher aggression rate in kids that observed same sex model

Bobo doll experiment Bandura Ross and Ross (1961) contributions to psych

-Effect of watching violence on TV and aggression in kids became popular

-Showcased behaviours that will still be modelled in a different situation from what was originally observed

Systematic desensitisation

Form of therapy based on classical conditioning principles that aim to extinguish the fear response through gradual exposure to the feared stimulus

Phobia

Intense and irrational fear to an object or situation that continues over time

Steps for systematic desensitisation

1. Fear hierarchy is developed processing from least distressing to most distressing

2. Client is taught relaxation technique eg deep breathing

3. Client is exposed to step one of their fear hierarchy, they practice their relaxation technique simultaneously

Vito and vivo

Vito = imagined

Vivo = real life

Systematic desensitisation key feature

Client can manage step 1, whilst remaining relaxed they can progress. If fear occurs they go back to step 1

Systematic desensitisation benefits

-Eliminates practical issue that come with organising and accessing real life exposure scenarios

-Continuation of therapy is likely as client had full control

Systematic desensitisation limitation

-Rely on visualisation, not suitable for clients that have difficulties visualising scenarios

-Underlying cause of phobia is not addressed

Token economy

A behaviour modification technique based on operant conditioning principles. Used symbolic reward to increase the target behaviour. Positive reinforcement

Token economy types of reinforcement

Primary and secondary

Secondary reinforcer

The symbolic tokens to reinforce target behaviour eg sticker or fake money

Primary reinforcer

The tangible reward. eg ice cream. Participants must know the primary reinforcer and be motivated to achieve it

Token economy strengths

Versatile for individual need and differences. Can be changed as motivation changes

Token economy limitation

The target behaviour occurs due to extrinsic motivation. Once the token economy ceases, the behaviour is also likely to cease.