Honors Biochemistry Study Summary: Molecular Balance and the Genetic Blueprint

Vocabulary flashcards covering key concepts in biochemistry, focusing on molecular balance, genetic information, and biochemical processes.

pH

A scale measuring the acidity or alkalinity of a solution, ranging from 1 to 14.

Neutral pH

A pH of 7, where the concentration of H+ ions is equal to that of OH- ions.

Acids

Substances that produce H+ ions in solution, typically tasting sour and having a low pH.

Alkalis

Substances that produce OH- ions in solution, typically tasting bitter and having a high pH.

Neutralization

A chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react to form salt and water.

Arrhenius Acids

Species that release H+ ions in aqueous solutions.

Arrhenius Bases

Species that release OH- ions in aqueous solutions.

Bronsted-Lowry Acids

Substances that donate protons (H+) in a chemical reaction.

Bronsted-Lowry Bases

Substances that accept protons (H+) in a chemical reaction.

Lewis Acids

Species that accept an electron pair during a reaction.

Lewis Bases

Species that donate an electron pair during a reaction.

Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs

Pairs of substances that differ by one proton (H+).

Enzymes

Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in living organisms.

Facilitated Diffusion

A process by which substances pass through membranes with the help of specialized proteins.

Active Transport

The movement of substances across a membrane against their concentration gradient, requiring energy.

Hydrogen Bonds

Weak attractions between hydrogen atoms and electronegative atoms.

Ionic Interactions

Attractive forces between charged particles.

Denature

The process by which proteins lose their three-dimensional structure and function due to changes in environmental conditions.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of a stable internal environment in an organism.

Buffers

Substances that resist changes in pH by absorbing excess H+ or OH- ions.

Bicarbonate Buffer System

The primary buffer system in the blood, consisting of carbonic acid and bicarbonate.

Nucleosomes

Structures composed of DNA wrapped around histone proteins, facilitating DNA packaging.

Polymers of Nucleotides

Long chains of nucleotides forming DNA and RNA.

Phosphodiester Bonds

Covalent bonds between nucleotides in nucleic acids that form the sugar-phosphate backbone.

Double Helix Structure

The shape of DNA, consisting of two strands wound around each other.

Complementary Base Pairing

Specific hydrogen bonding between nitrogenous bases: A with T (or U), and C with G.

Transcription

The process of synthesizing mRNA from a DNA template.

Translation

The process of synthesizing proteins from mRNA on ribosomes.

Codon

A sequence of three mRNA bases that codes for a specific amino acid.

Mutation

A change in the DNA sequence that may alter protein function.

Chaperonins

Proteins that assist in the correct folding of other proteins.

Hydrophobic Amino Acids

Amino acids that avoid water, often found in the protein core.

Disulfide Bonds

Covalent bonds between cysteine residues that contribute to protein stability.

pH Range for Blood

The ideal pH range of human blood, which is 7.35 to 7.45.

Alzheimer's Disease

A neurodegenerative disease associated with misfolded proteins.

Cystic Fibrosis

A genetic disorder caused by the misfolding of CFTR protein.

Prion Disease

A disease caused by misfolded proteins inducing other proteins to misfold.

Gene Expression

The process by which information from a gene is used to synthesize functional gene products.

Transcription Factors

Proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences to regulate transcription.

Signal to Traits

How signals influence which genes are expressed to produce observable traits.

Molecular Level Impact

The small scale changes within molecules that can have significant biological effects.

Hydrophilic Amino Acids

Amino acids that attract water, usually positioned on the surface of proteins.

Van der Waals Forces

Weak attractions that occur between molecules or parts of molecules.

Gene Differentiation

The process by which cells undergo changes to become specialized.

Anticodon

A sequence of three bases in tRNA that pairs with a complementary mRNA codon.

Amino Acids

The building blocks of proteins, coded by mRNA in sequences.

mRNA Molecule

A strand of messenger RNA that carries genetic information from DNA.

Protein Aggregation

The accumulation of misfolded proteins that can lead to disease.

Hydrophobic Regions

Areas of a protein that repel water, influencing folding and function.

Temperature Effect on Enzymes

Temperature changes can impact enzyme activity, potentially denaturing them.

Electrostatic Interactions

Attractive forces between charged groups within or between molecules.

Pepsin

A digestive enzyme in the stomach that works optimally at a low pH.

Trypsin

A digestive enzyme that functions best at a higher pH in the small intestine.

pH Disruption

Changes in pH that can lead to protein denaturation and loss of function.

Gene Activity

The level of expression of a gene under specific conditions.

Homeostasis Mechanisms

Processes that maintain stable internal conditions in living organisms.

Protein Structure Levels

The hierarchical organization of proteins, including primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.

RNA Polymerase

The enzyme responsible for synthesizing RNA from a DNA template.

Initiation in Transcription

The first step where RNA polymerase binds to DNA and unwinds the helix.

Elongation in Transcription

The step in transcription where the RNA strand length increases as nucleotides are added.

Termination in Transcription

The step where the RNA synthesis is completed and the transcription machinery disassembles.

Codon Usage

The specific sequences of three nucleotides in mRNA that determine amino acids.

Polypeptide Chains

Chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds that form proteins.

Ribosome Function

Organelles that read mRNA and assemble polypeptides during translation.

Gene Regulation

Mechanisms that control the expression of specific genes.

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

The framework explaining the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to proteins.

DNA Stability

The structural integrity and resilience of DNA in various conditions.

Nucleic Acids

Biomolecules that store and transmit genetic information (DNA and RNA).

Histones

Proteins around which DNA wraps to form nucleosomes, aiding in DNA packaging.

Electrostatic Attraction

The force that draws together ions or polar molecules due to their electrical charges.

Functional Proteins

Proteins that have folded correctly and are capable of performing biological functions.

Unused Genes

Genes that are not expressed or transcribed under specific conditions.

Antisense Strand

The DNA strand that serves as a template for mRNA during transcription.

DNA Sequencing

The process of determining the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule.

Kinase

An enzyme that adds phosphate groups to other molecules, often regulating protein functions.

Gene Product

The final end result of gene expression, typically a protein or functional RNA.

Feedback Loop

A system in which the output influences the operation of the system itself, maintaining balance.

Concentration Gradient

The gradual change in the concentration of solutes in a solution as a function of distance.

Alkaline Tablets

Medicinal tablets that neutralize excess stomach acidity.

Protein Misfolding

The incorrect folding of proteins, often resulting in loss of function and disease.

Water Molecule

A polar molecule essential to life, contributing to cellular processes and chemical reactions.

RNA Template

The strand of RNA that is synthesized from a DNA template during transcription.

Degenerate Genetic Code

Refers to the redundancy in the genetic code where different codons can code for the same amino acid.

Aqueous Solution

A solution in which water is the solvent.

Peptide Bonds

Chemical bonds that link amino acids together in proteins.

Microenvironment

The local environment that influences the behavior of cells and biological processes.