Unit 4 psych

Attributions

The process of explaining the causes of behavior or events.

Dispositional Attributions

Attributing behavior to internal characteristics, such as personality or abilities.

Situational Attributions

Attributing behavior to external factors, such as the environment or circumstances.

Explanatory Style

How individuals explain the causes of events, either optimistically or pessimistically.

Optimistic Explanatory Style

Tendency to attribute positive events to internal, stable, and global causes, and negative events to external, unstable, and specific causes.

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

Tendency to attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global causes, and positive events to external, unstable, and specific causes.

Actor/Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute our own actions to situational factors but others’ actions to dispositional factors.

Fundamental Attribution Error

Overestimating dispositional factors and underestimating situational factors when explaining others’ behavior.

Self-Serving Bias

Attributing successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

Internal Locus of Control

Belief that one’s actions control outcomes.

External Locus of Control

Belief that external forces control outcomes.

Mere Exposure Effect

Preferring stimuli simply because they are familiar.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Expectations influencing behavior to make the expectation come true.

Social Comparison

Evaluating oneself by comparing to others.

Upward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to someone perceived as better.

Downward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to someone perceived as worse.

Relative Deprivation

Feeling deprived compared to others.

Stereotype

Generalized belief about a group of people.

Cognitive Load

The amount of mental effort being used in working memory.

Prejudice

Negative attitude toward a group or its members.

Discrimination

Negative behavior toward a group or its members.

Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious attitudes that influence behavior.

Just-World Phenomenon

Believing the world is fair and people get what they deserve.

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

Perceiving members of an out-group as similar to each other.

In-Group Bias

Favoring members of one’s own group.

Ethnocentrism

Judging other cultures by the standards of one’s own culture.

Belief Perseverance

Clinging to beliefs even after they’ve been discredited.

Confirmation Bias

Seeking information that confirms preexisting beliefs.

Cognitive Dissonance

Mental discomfort from holding conflicting beliefs or behaviors.

Social Norms

Unwritten rules for acceptable behavior in a group.

Social Influence Theory

How others influence our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Normative Social Influence

Conforming to gain social approval or avoid disapproval.

Informational Social Influence

Conforming because we believe others have accurate information.

Persuasion

Attempting to change someone’s attitude or behavior.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

A theory explaining how attitudes are formed or changed through central or peripheral routes.

Central Route

Persuasion through logical arguments and evidence.

Peripheral Route

Persuasion through superficial cues like attractiveness or emotions.

Halo Effect

Assuming someone has positive traits because of one known positive trait.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

Getting someone to agree to a small request before asking for a larger one.

Door-in-the-Face Technique

Asking for a large request first, expecting it to be rejected, then asking for a smaller one.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or thinking to match a group standard.

Obedience

Following orders from an authority figure.

Individualism

Valuing personal independence and self-reliance.

Collectivism

Valuing group harmony and interdependence.

Multiculturalism

Valuing and respecting diverse cultural backgrounds.

Group Polarization

Group discussions leading to more extreme positions.

Groupthink

Suppressing dissent to maintain group harmony.

Diffusion of Responsibility

Feeling less responsible in a group.

Social Loafing

Exerting less effort in a group than when alone.

Deindividuation

Losing self-awareness in a group, leading to uninhibited behavior.

Social Facilitation

Improved performance in the presence of others.

False Consensus Effect

Overestimating how much others share our beliefs.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that require cooperation.

Social Traps

Situations where individuals act in their own self-interest, harming the group.

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychologists

Psychologists who study workplace behavior.

Burnout

Physical and emotional exhaustion from prolonged stress.

Altruism

Selfless concern for others’ well-being.

Prosocial Behavior

Actions that benefit others.

Social Debt

Feeling obligated to repay others for their help.

Social Reciprocity Norm

Expectation that people will respond in kind to others’ actions.

Social Responsibility Norm

Expectation to help those in need.

Bystander Effect

Less likelihood to help when others are present.

Situational Variables

External factors influencing behavior.

Attentional Variable

Factors affecting where attention is directed.

Psychodynamic Theory

Freud’s theory emphasizing unconscious processes and childhood experiences.

Unconscious Processes

Mental processes outside conscious awareness.

Ego Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious strategies to reduce anxiety.

Denial

Refusing to accept reality.

Displacement

Redirecting emotions to a safer target.

Projection

Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts to others.

Rationalization

Creating logical explanations for irrational behavior.

Reaction Formation

Expressing the opposite of one’s true feelings.

Regression

Reverting to childlike behavior under stress.

Repression

Blocking painful memories from consciousness.

Sublimation

Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable actions.

Projective Tests

Psychological tests using ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious thoughts.

Preconscious Mind

Thoughts not currently in awareness but easily accessible.

Unconscious Mind

Thoughts and memories outside conscious awareness.

Humanistic Psychology

Emphasizing personal growth and self-actualization.

Unconditional Regard

Accepting and supporting someone without judgment.

Self-Actualizing Tendency

Innate drive to reach one’s full potential.

Social-Cognitive Theory

Emphasizes how behavior, environment, and cognition interact.

Reciprocal Determinism

The interaction between behavior, environment, and personal factors.

Self-Concept

How one perceives and evaluates themselves.

Self-Efficacy

Belief in one’s ability to succeed.

Self-Esteem

Overall sense of self-worth.

Trait Theories

Theories that personality is composed of stable traits.

Big Five Theory

A trait theory identifying five core personality dimensions.

Agreeableness

A Big Five trait characterized by compassion and cooperativeness.

Openness to Experience

A Big Five trait characterized by creativity and curiosity.

Extraversion

A Big Five trait characterized by sociability and energy.

Conscientiousness

A Big Five trait characterized by organization and responsibility.

Emotional Stability

A Big Five trait characterized by calmness and resilience.

Personality Inventories

Questionnaires designed to measure personality traits.

Factor Analysis

A statistical method to identify clusters of related traits.