child psych exam 3

what is a family?

a group that involves at least one adult who is related to the child by birth, marriage, adoption, or foster status and who is responsible for providing basic necessities as well as love, support, safety, stability, and opportunities for learning

family structure

number of and relationships among the people living in a household

what do alterations in family structure impact

interactions among family members, family routines and norms, children’s emotional well-being

single parenthood

increase since 1960, great among minoritized racial/ethnic groups and those with less education

33% children live below poverty line

average age for women to become parents

27

what percentage of women have 3+ children

30% in 2020

Children living with grandparents

1.9 million grandparents are primary caregivers, may experience challenges

what percent of marriages end in divorce

50%

short and long term effects on children after divorce

boys: externalizing problems

both: drop in academic achievement

differences and effects are variable and small compared to intact families

why the effects of divorce?

poorer family financial situation, stress, new school or neighborhood, less time with noncustodial parents, potential increased conflict between parents

simple stepfamily

a anew stepparent joins another parent and children

complex/blended stepfamilies

addition of stepparent and step siblings

NICHD study of early child care and youth development

designed to test whether out of home care negatively affected children’s development

found that hours of out of home care unrelated to attachment security

BUT - low maternal sensitivity combined with poor quality out of home care was connected to insecure attachment

work-family conflict

stress or conflict at work transfers into family life

work-family enhancement

positive experiences at work enrich relationships at home

family dynamics

how many family members relate to one another

family systems theory

families are organized systems that consist of interdependent parts

bi-directional relationships

individuals affect each other

third party effects

family members affect each other directly and indirectly

ex: birth of new baby, sibling conflict, mother entering room change family dynamic

socialization

process through which children acquire values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviors appropriate for their culture

family is primary context

baumrind research on parenting styles

observed parent-child interaction - control, maturity demand/standards, communication, nurturance/warmth

observed child behavior at home and school

4 styles - authoritarian, authoritative, uninvolved, permissive

parenting styles described using two dimensions

warmth and control

authoritarian parents

low warmth, high control

children are typically low in social/academic competence, unhappy and unfriendly, difficulties coping with stress

authoritative parents

high warmth, high control - most adaptive

children are typically mature and self-confident, popular with peers, low in problem behavior

permissive parents

high warmth, low control

children are typically impulsive, low in school achievement, high in problem behavior, including drug/alcohol use

uninvolved parents

low warmth, low control

children typically fare the worst especially in adolescents

discipline

set of strategies and behaviors parents use to teach children to behave appropriately

internalization

effective discipline fosters a permanent change in child’s behavior because child has learned and accepted desired behavior

induction

reasoning focused on the effects of a behavior on other people

promotes understanding and empathy

most effective form of discipline

punishment

negative stimulus that follows a behavior to reduce the likelihood that a behavior to reduce the likelihood that a behavior occurs again

mild punishment can provide pressure needed for internalization

less effective overall

spanking

form of physical punishment

proven to not be very effective

increases risk for mental health problems, poor relationships, lower self-esteem, lower cognitive ability, physical abuse

cultural parenting differences

association between authoritative parenting and positive child adjustment is weaker in china

more authoritarian parenting in china is not related to negative child outcomes

coparenting

extent to which parents support or undermine each other’s parenting efforts

matters more for child adjustment than individual parenting

strong conscience predicted by

gentle discipline for fearful children

good mother-child relationship for fearless children (secure attachment helpful for internalization)

sibling relationships

hierarchical like parent-child relationships, but also like peer influence (mutual influence)

80% of families have at least two children

transition to siblinghood

Brenda Volling research

most first-borns adjust well

problematic behaviors tend to be short lived

sibling differentiation

siblings strive to make themselves distinct from one another in attributes, interests, etc.

social learning theory

siblings learn from one another, which makes them more similar in attributes, interests, etc.

parental differential treatment

associated with poorer sibling relationships

associated with poor adjustment for child who receives poorer treatment

peer

someone who is approximately the same age and stats as you are and who is not related to you

friend

a person with whom an individual has an intimate, reciprocated, positive relationships

has to be mutual

who becomes friends?

children tend to make friends with others similar in social behavior, negative emotions, academic motivation, cognitive maturity

proximity, race/ethnicity, sociability matters too

early childhood friendship

peer preferences by 12-18 months

at least one friend by age 3-4

high cooperation and conflict

middle childhood and adolescent friendships

importance of shared activities declines

importance of intimacy, exploration, etc. increases

friendships become more exclusive

importance of friendship

friends are an important source of social support across middle childhood and adolescence, but role of parents doesn’t decline much

role of teachers declines significantly

peer acceptance categories

popular, rejected, controversial, neglected, average

popular children

many positive, few negative votes

rejected children

many negative, few positive votes

controversial children

many positive, many negative votes

neglected children

few positive, few negative votes

average children

few extreme ratings

outcomes of peer rejection

rejected children are often more lonely, more depressed, more socially anxious, at risk for dropping out of school, depression and low self-esteem later in life

these children usually do have at least one best friend

origins of peer acceptance

physical attractiveness, athleticism, having high status friends, social skills

play group studies

previously unacquainted children play together and behaviors are recorded to identify children’s sociometric status

popular and likable children

accepted by peers

impactful, high status in group

may exhibit prosocial and aggressive behaviors

relational aggression

excluding others from social group and attempting to do harm to other people’s relationships

aggressive-rejected children

prone to physical aggression, disruptive behavior, delinquincy, and negative behavior (hostility threatening others)

withdrawn-rejected children

socially withdrawn, wary, and often timid

neglected children

keeps to self, has interests other than peers

controversial children

prosocial but also aggressive

friendship vs peer status

90% of high-accepted children have a reciprocal best friend

50% of low-accepted children have a reciprocal best friend

friendship buffer

friendship can serve as a buffer for rejected children against loneliness

bullying

results from power imbalance

influences what other students thought of them, more popular, physically stronger, had more money

girls more likely to be bullied (20%)

children who bully

callous and antisocial, susceptible to peer pressure, higher in social status, and have harsh and insensitive parents

children who are victims of bullying

rejected by peers, do poorly in school, and feel depressed

cyberbullying study in Belgium

more cyberbullying led to greater perceived popularity, but not greater likability

components of morality

cognition, affect, and behavior

conscience

internal regulatory mechanism that increases the individual’s ability to conform to cultural standards of conduct → guilt

Piagets moral theory

dilemma with the cups, both are accidents, who is more wrong?

younger children will say the child who broke more cups

Piaget moral theory stages

premoral - <5 years of age

heteronomous morality - 5-10 years of age, rules handed down by authorities and cannot be changed, large focus on consequences

autonomous morality - 11-12 years of age, rules/laws are arbitrary agreements that can be changed/violated, intentions important

expiatory punishment

punishment is good for its own sake, determined by authorities

immanent justice

if you break a rule you’ll be punished one way or another

reciprocal punishment

punishment should fit the crime and teach a lesson

criticisms of Piaget moral theory

underestimates young children

even preschoolers know difference between right and wrong, social conventional judgements (customs, rules supporting social coordination or organization)

Kohlberg moral theory

develops over time, but discontinuous and hierarchical, advanced thinking one act new stage

heinz dilemma stealing drug for wife

preconventional, conventional, post conventional

preconventional level of Kohlberg moral theory

self-centered, focusing on getting rewards and avoiding punishment

conventional level of Kohlberg moral theory

centered on social relationships, focusing on compliance with social duties and laws

would say that the mans job is to be a good husband and steal the drug

post conventional level of Kohlberg moral theory

centered on ideals, focusing on moral principles

criticism of Kohlberg moral theory

hard to reach stages 5&6 (postconventional level)

people can be in more than one stage at a time

social domain theory (smetana)

moral, societal, and personal domains

what type of judgment is considered in particular domains varies by age, culture, religion, ses

moral domain

concepts of right and wrong, fairness, justice, and individual rights apply across contexts and superseded rules or authority

societal domain

concepts regarding rules and conventions through which societies maintain order

personal domain

individual preferences are the main consideration; there are no right or wrong choices

prosocial behavior

voluntary behavior intended to benefit another, such as helping, sharing, and comforting others

antisocial behavior

disruptive, hostile, or aggressive behaviors that violate social norms or rules and that harm or take advantage of others

development of prosocial behavior

help and cooperative behavior emerges at 14-18 months

more complex cooperation emerges around age 2

warneken and tomasello’s study on helpful behavior

toddlers presented with situation where adult cannot reach goal, observes whether or not child helps them reach the goal

aknin et all study on giving treats to puppet

2 year olds asked to give up treats to puppet, emotional expressions coded

found that children were happier when they gave vs received treats

individual differences in prosocial behavior

temperament - slow to warm up and difficult temperament less likely to behave prosocially

peers - children learn and practice moral principles such as fairness, justice, reciprocity, and conflict resolution via relationships with other children

socialization of prosocial behavior

parents socialize prosocial behavior in children by modeling and teaching behavior, providing opportunities for children to engage in prosocial behavior, developing positive relationships with them

instrumental aggression

aggression motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal

emerges early, prior to 12 months, but initially is not physical

life course persistent aggression

children identified as aggressive at age 8 more likely to engage in serious criminal behavior at age 30

individual differences in antisocial behavior

high difficulty and poor self control (temperament and personality)

callous-unemotional behaviors - low empathy, guilty nd concern for others

fearless temperament at age 2 → greater C-U traits at age 13

hostile attributional bias

aggressive children tend to interpret the work through an aggressive view

• attributes hostile motives to others

• have more hostile goals in social situations

• may evaluate aggressive responses more favorably

antisocial behavior socialization

harsh parenting

• cold and punitive, physical/verbal abuse

• leads to aggressive social cognition and model aggressive behaviors

poor parental monitoring

• affects extent child associates with deviant peers

verbal and physical inter parental conflict

• direct and indirect effects

self

conceptual system made up of one’s thoughts and attitudes about oneself including physical being, social characteristics, internal characteristics

dynamic - changes over time

development of self-concept in early childhood

3-5 year olds

physical characteristics, appearance, possessions, actions

berekely puppet interview, child self-view questionnaire

poppets make opposing statements, children choose statement more like them

answers show consistency

self-concept in middle childhood

8-11 years old

psychological characteristics, can incorporate opposing characteristics

social comparison

the process of comparing aspects of one’s own psychological, behavioral, or physical functioning to that of others in order to evaluate oneself