PSYC333 Test 2 Content

Emotional Suppression

Emotional suppression is the inhibition of the outward expression and/or internal experience of emotions from others. It is considered an inherently interpersonal emotion regulation strategy.

What were the main findings of Low et al. (2017) regarding emotional suppression and personal goals?

Emotional suppression predicted:

• Increased depressed mood

• Lower support and closeness

• Lower goal effort

• Lower goal competence

• Lower goal success over time

Why might emotional suppression hinder goal achievement?

Suppression is cognitively effortful and may divert attention and resources away from problem-solving and goal-directed behaviour.

How do interaction partners typically perceive people who suppress emotions?

They are perceived as:

• Poorer communicators

• Less authentic

• Less responsive

• Less extraverted

Cognitive Reappraisal

An emotion regulation strategy involving changing how one thinks about a situation to alter its emotional impact.

What behaviours indicate cognitive reappraisal during conflict discussions?

• Open expression of emotions

• Team-oriented thinking ("we" and "us" language)

• Constructive problem-solving

• Remaining calm

According to Low et al. (2018), how did suppression and reappraisal affect conflict resolution?

• Suppression → poorer conflict resolution

• Reappraisal → more successful conflict resolution

When can emotional suppression be beneficial?

When it serves prosocial goals or social harmony, such as:

• Preventing escalation during arguments

• Maintaining professionalism

• Protecting others' feelings

Why are the costs of suppression lower in some Asian cultures?

Asian cultures often prioritise social harmony and interdependence, making suppression feel more authentic and socially appropriate.

What is the difference between hedonic and instrumental motives for emotion regulation?

• Hedonic: Regulating emotions to feel good or avoid feeling bad.

• Instrumental: Regulating emotions to achieve a goal or improve performance.

What are the three main types of instrumental motives discussed in Lecture 2?

1. Performance motives

2. Prosocial motives

3. Impression management motives

What is interpersonal emotion regulation (IER)?

The process of either:

• Turning to others to regulate one's own emotions, or

• Trying to regulate another person's emotions.

What are the four defining characteristics of interpersonal emotion regulation?

1. Goal-directed

2. Emotion-focused (affective target)

3. Deliberate and effortful

4. Socially focused

What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic IER?

• Intrinsic IER: Using others to regulate your own emotions.

• Extrinsic IER: Trying to regulate another person's emotions.

Rumination

Repetitive, self-focused dwelling on negative feelings, symptoms, or problems that occurs alone and is associated with depression.

What are the four defining features of co-rumination?

• Rehashing problems repeatedly

• Mutual encouragement to discuss problems

• Speculation about causes and consequences

• Dwelling on negative emotions

What are the major costs and benefits of co-rumination?

Costs:

• Increased depression

• Increased anxiety

• More rumination

• Greater risk of depressive disorders

Benefits:

• Greater friendship quality

• Increased closeness

• Feeling validated, supported, and cared for

What is the difference between expressive and instrumental voting?

• Expressive voting: Voting reflects identity, values, and group membership ("This is who I am").

• Instrumental voting: Voting is based on achieving desired outcomes ("Which option benefits me most?").

What question is at the heart of voting behaviour research?

"Is voting an act of affirmation or of choice?"

• Affirmation: Expressing identity.

• Choice: Selecting the most beneficial option.

What is the Sociological Model of voting?

Voting is shaped by social group memberships (e.g., class, religion, ethnicity).

• Group memberships are stable.

• Voting patterns tend to be stable.

• Combines expressive and instrumental elements.

What is the Michigan Model?

Voting is driven by psychological identification with a political party.

• Party identification is a powerful predictor of voting.

• Based on Social Identity Theory.

• Primarily an expressive model.

What is Rational Choice Theory (RCT)?

People vote according to cost-benefit calculations.

• Aim to maximise personal utility.

• Voting is primarily instrumental.

• Popular in the 1960s/70s.

How are "left" and "right" traditionally defined?

• Left: Supports greater equality and social change.

• Right: Supports hierarchy, tradition, and resistance to equality-based change.

Why is ideology difficult to measure?

People can hold mixed views:

• Socially liberal but economically conservative.

• Liberal and conservative labels can mean different things to different people.

• Ideology is often multidimensional.

What did Sidanius' factor analyses reveal about political ideology?

Political attitudes cluster into factors such as:

• Political-economic conservatism

• Racism

• Religion

• Authoritarianism

• Social inequality

• Xenophobia

What factors emerged in Marc Wilson's New Zealand factor analysis?

• Capitalism vs Socialism

• Racism

• Aotearoa-specific issues

• Colonisation/Crown relations

• Religion and social issues

What is Social Dominance Theory?

Societies are organised into group-based hierarchies that tend to maintain themselves over time.

Groups differ in status based on:

• Age

• Gender

• Arbitrary group memberships

What is Social Dominance Orientation (SDO)?

A preference for group-based inequality and hierarchy.

High-SDO individuals:

• Support inequality.

• Prefer hierarchy-enhancing systems and occupations.

• Tend to show more prejudice.

What are hierarchy-enhancing (HE) and hierarchy-attenuating (HA) roles?

HE roles: Maintain inequality

• Military

• Police

HA roles: Reduce inequality

• Teachers

• Doctors

• Social workers

What are legitimising myths?

Beliefs that justify and maintain social hierarchies.

Examples:

• Meritocracy ("People get what they deserve")

• Paternalistic myths

• Sacred myths

What are the three components of Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA)?

1. Authoritarian submission – obey authorities.

2. Authoritarian aggression – punish rule-breakers.

3. Conventionalism – preference for traditional values.

How do SDO and RWA differ?

SDO:

• Focuses on hierarchy and inequality.

• "Some groups should dominate others."

RWA:

• Focuses on authority, conformity, and tradition.

• "People should obey authorities."

According to Jost et al., what motivates political conservatism?

Three motivations:

1. Epistemic: Desire for certainty and closure.

2. Existential: Desire for safety and security.

3. Ideological: Protection of group interests and dominance.

What are the two pathways to prejudice in Duckitt's Dual Process Model?

Route 1

Punitive socialisation → Dangerous world beliefs → RWA → Prejudice

Route 2

Unaffectionate socialisation → Competitive-jungle beliefs → SDO → Prejudice

What are the two core dimensions underlying many social, political, and scientific attitudes?

• Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) – preference for authority, conformity, and social order.

• Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) – preference for hierarchy and group-based inequality.

What are the three categories of prejudice identified by Duckitt & Sibley (2007)?

1. Derogated groups – viewed as inferior or undesirable (e.g., obese people, people with disabilities).

2. Dangerous groups – viewed as threatening (e.g., terrorists, drug users).

3. Dissident groups – viewed as challenging social norms (e.g., feminists, atheists, protestors).

How does Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) predict prejudice?

SDO predicts prejudice toward:

• Derogated groups

• Dissident groups

How does Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) predict prejudice?

RWA predicts prejudice toward:

• Dangerous groups

• Dissident groups

What are the two worldviews in Duckitt's Dual Process Model?

Dangerous-World View

• The world is threatening and unsafe.

• Leads to RWA.

Competitive-Jungle View

• The world is a ruthless competition for power.

• Leads to SDO.

How does the Dual Process Model explain prejudice?

Dangerous World → RWA → Prejudice toward threatening groups

Competitive Jungle → SDO → Prejudice toward low-status/challenging groups

Why might conservatives be less positive toward vegans?

RWA pathway:

Vegans challenge traditional lifestyles and norms.

SDO pathway:

Vegans challenge human dominance over animals and nature.

What did Brandt et al. (2014) find about prejudice?

Both liberals and conservatives display prejudice.

• Liberals dislike groups perceived as conservative.

• Conservatives dislike groups perceived as liberal.

What is the Gateway Belief Model (GBM)?

People may be more likely to accept scientific conclusions if they learn that most scientists agree on an issue.

Scientific consensus → Greater acceptance of science

Why doesn't scientific consensus always change people's beliefs?

Because belief change depends on:

• Trust in scientists

• Political ideology

• Conspiracy beliefs

• Existing worldviews

What is conspiracy ideation?

A tendency to believe hidden groups secretly manipulate important events.

Associated with:

• Distrust of authorities

• Distrust of scientists

• Rejection of scientific findings

What predicts rejection of climate change science?

Strong predictors include:

• RWA

• SDO

• Conservatism

• Free-market economic beliefs

• Low trust in scientists

Political ideology is often a stronger predictor than conspiracy beliefs.

What predicts political, social, and economic attitudes?

Social Dominance Orientation and Right-Wing Authoratarianism

What is Homo Economicus?

A theoretical model of humans as:

• Rational

• Self-interested

• Utility-maximising

Assumes people make optimal decisions based on complete information

What is Expected Utility Theory (EUT)?

A normative theory of decision-making that states people should choose the option that maximises expected utility.

Assumes:

• Complete information

• Sufficient time

• Motivation to optimise

What are the six principles of Expected Utility Theory?

1. Ordering of alternatives

2. Cancellation

3. Dominance

4. Transitivity

5. Continuity

6. Invariance

Violations of these principles suggest irrational decision-making.

What is the principle of dominance?

If Option A is better than Option B on all relevant dimensions, a rational person should choose A.

Example: A computer with better specifications at the same price dominates the alternative.

What is transitivity?

If:

• A > B

• B > C

Then:

• A > C

Preferences should be logically consistent.

What is a heuristic?

A mental shortcut or "rule of thumb" used to make judgments quickly and efficiently.

Usually useful, but can produce systematic biases.

What is the representativeness heuristic?

People judge probability based on how much something resembles a stereotype or category.

Problem: Can lead to ignoring actual probabilities.

What is the conjunction fallacy?

The mistaken belief that:

A + B is more likely than A alone.

Example: The Linda problem.

A conjunction can never be more probable than one of its components.

What is base-rate neglect?

gnoring known statistical information in favour of descriptive information.

Engineer-Lawyer Example:
People ignore the 30/70 distribution and focus on personality descriptions.

What is the hot hand fallacy?

The belief that recent success increases the probability of future success.

Research suggests success often becomes less likely after a streak due to statistical regression.

What is the gambler's fallacy?

The belief that random events are "due" to occur after a streak.

Example: Believing a roulette wheel is due to land on black after several reds.

Random events remain independent.

What is the availability heuristic?

People judge probability based on how easily examples come to mind.

Example: Overestimating shark attacks because they receive extensive media coverage.

What is the simulation heuristic?

People judge events as more likely if they are easier to imagine.

Example: A disease with familiar symptoms seems more likely than one with unfamiliar symptoms.

What is anchoring and adjustment?

People begin with an initial value (anchor) and adjust from it.

The adjustment is usually insufficient, producing biased judgments.

Why is anchoring considered powerful evidence against purely rational decision-making?

Even:

• Random anchors

• Irrelevant anchors

• Extreme anchors

Can influence judgments and estimates.

What is the difference between self-generated and experimenter-provided anchors?

Self-generated anchors

• Require active adjustment

• Influenced by effort and motivation

Experimenter-provided anchors

• More automatic

• Less affected by incentives or forewarning

What is bounded rationality?

Herbert Simon's idea that decision-making is constrained by:

• Limited information

• Limited time

• Limited cognitive resources

People cannot always optimise.

What is satisficing?

Choosing an option that is "good enough" rather than searching endlessly for the optimal choice.

A key feature of bounded rationality.

What is a nudge?

A small change to the choice environment that influences behaviour without:

• Removing options

• Forcing choices

• Changing economic incentives

Works through automatic decision process

What is gamification?

Using game elements in non-game contexts to encourage behaviour change.

Common elements:

• Points

• Levels

• Leaderboards

• Achievement systems

Designed to increase motivation and engagement.

Mental Accounting

Categorising and evaluating money/outcomes in separate mental accounts (e.g., income, wealth, future income).

Windfall gain

Money treated as "new" or separate from existing finances (e.g., tax refunds).

Framing effect

Different choices arising from equivalent outcomes presented in different ways.

Invariance

Rational choices should not change when equivalent options are framed differently.

What is the key idea of Prospect Theory?

People evaluate gains and losses relative to a reference point rather than objective outcomes.

How do people typically respond to gains versus losses?

Risk-averse for gains, risk-seeking for losses.

What is loss aversion?

Losses are psychologically more impactful than equivalent gains.

How do people distort probabilities according to Prospect Theory?

They overweight small probabilities and underweight moderate/high probabilities.

The Endowment Effect

People value possessions more simply because they own them.

How does the Endowment Effect affect buying and selling?

Willingness to sell exceeds willingness to pay for the same item.

What is the sunk-cost effect?

Continuing with a choice because of past investments that cannot be recovered.

What is inaction inertia?

Avoiding a current opportunity because a better opportunity was previously missed.

What does Norm Theory propose?

Emotional reactions depend on comparisons between reality and alternative possibilities.

What is counterfactual thinking?

Imagining how past events could have turned out differently.

What is the difference between upward and downward counterfactuals?

Upward = things could have been better; Downward = things could have been worse.

What functions do upward and downward counterfactuals serve?

Upward → preparation and learning; Downward → emotion regulation.

What are the two modes in REM?

Evaluative mode (affective contrast) and reflection mode (affective assimilation).

How does regret change over time?

Actions are regretted more immediately; inactions are regretted more in the long term.

What are the two components of regret? (Decision Justification Theory)

Negative outcome comparison and self-blame for the decision.

Why is debiasing difficult?

Biases often operate outside awareness, motivation, or conscious control (mental contamination).