chapters 13-15 psy 361

Adolescents begin to form a more _______ self-concept

complex

In Early and middle adolescence, adolescents

May use contradictory statements without resolving the conflict, Compare themselves to an ideal self, Feel conflict about contradictions in self-descriptions, and Peers have a heavier influence

In Late Adolescence, adolescents

Develop an integrated view of self, Decrease reliance on the opinions of peers, Self-esteem rises starting around age 15

Trajectories of Self-Esteem in Adolescence

some adolescents showed declining self-esteem in early to mid-adolescence, whereas others were stable or rising in self-esteem during this period.

Identity development

the process in which an individual integrates personal characteristics (such as self-concepts) with a set of values and a set of future goals.

Erik Erikson proposed that developing a sense of _______ was the major task of adolescence

identity

Identity crisis

individuals either achieve a sense of identity or remain confused about their adult roles.

In The Development of the Self, there are Two processes

exploration and commitment

Marcia's Four Identity Statuses

Identity achievement, identity moratorium, identity foreclosure, and identity diffusion.

Identity achievement

exploration and commitment

Identity moratorium

exploration without commitment

Identity foreclosure

commitment without prior exploration

Identity diffusion

no exploration or commitment

Identity achievement generally _______ with age and diffusion _________

increases, decreases

Researchers' findings using Marcia's framework

No strong evidence for a typical sequence of development. There is a steady decrease with age in the percentage of people in the diffusion category and a steady increase in the percentage in the identity achievement category, but the largest increase in identity achievement doesn't occur until the late 20s and early 30s.

People in identity achievement generally show

better psychological adjustment, less delinquent behavior, and better school performance and tend to have a warmer family environment than people in the moratorium and diffusion status

Comparisons of identity achievement with foreclosure have not revealed consistent differences in

self-esteem, anxiety, or other aspects of psychological adjustment

Identity development may occur more in ______ ______ than _________

early adulthood, adolescence.

Jeffrey Arnett proposed a new period called

emerging adulthood

Two cycles of exploration and commitment (adolescence vs early adulthood)

Adolescence: breadth, Early adulthood: depth

Two cycles of exploration and commitment

Exploration in breadth and commitment making and Identification with commitment

Phinney's Stages of Ethnic Identity Development

Stage 1: Unexamined Ethnic Identity, Stage 2: Ethnic Identity Search, Stage 3: Ethnic Identity achievement

A strong ethnic-racial identity is associated with

adaptive outcomes in all ethnic-racial groups. Outcomes include social competence, self-esteem, academic achievement, and more resilience in the face of ethnic-racial discrimination

what factors influence ethnic-racial identity formation?

Contextual

Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning

preconventional, conventional, postconventional morality

Level I—preconventional morality

Avoid punishment (stage 1), Gain rewards (stage 2)

Level II—conventional morality

Conform to social expectations of others (stage 3), Conform to law of the land (stage 4)

Level III—post-conventional morality

Social contract reasoning (stage 5), Universal ethical principles (stage 6)

Criticisms of Kohlberg's theory

Dilemmas put moral values in conflict with social conventions. Individuals use similar reasoning across ages; type of thinking depends on context

Social domain theory

Moral judgements (issues of harm, rights, welfare, equality, and allocation of resources), Social conventional judgements (customs, norms, and conventions), Psychological domain (personal choice)

Three levels of thinking

Level 1 - Straightforward One-Dimensional, Level 2 - Multidimensional Uncoordinated, Level 3 - Multidimensional Coordinates

Many of the choices we make involve

prosocial reasoning

About ___ percent of teens attend religious services at least once a month

44%

Religious involvement is at its lowest in

late adolescence and early adulthood

Religious involvement is associated with

positive outcomes in youth development

Religious adolescents are more likely to have

strong relationships with their parents, Less exposure to peer-induced risky behaviors

Conflict with mothers follows what pattern?

a U-shaped pattern

Most arguments concern

everyday issues

Conflict may ________ relationships

strengthen

what are the most common parenting styles?

Authoritative and disengaged parenting

Types of parenting

controlling and autonomy supportive

Adolescents value _____ qualities in friends as they did in ____ _______

similar, middle childhood

Homophily refers to

the tendency to make friends with those who are similar to them

Researchers identified four main mechanisms

rewards, emulation, peer pressure, and compromise

Co-rumination

excessive, repeated discussion of problems and negative feelings within a close friendship or relationship, characterized by dwelling on difficulties rather than finding solutions

Deviancy training

a social process where peers, particularly adolescents, reinforce antisocial or delinquent behavior through positive reactions like laughter, smiling, or approval, increasing the likelihood of future problem behavior

Peer influence is moderated by

family interactions

Antisocial behavior manifests in different forms

Adolescence-limited antisocial behavior (about 40%), Early-onset antisocial behavior (about 5%)

Some claim the goal of antisocial behavior is done to attract ____ ________ or seem more _______ and ____________

peer attention, mature, independent

Popularity in children

Beginning in middle childhood, children can distinguish between likeability or acceptance and perceived popularity

Cliques

small, exclusive groups of friends and acquaintances, containing around 3 to 10 members

Crowds

larger, reputation-based groups that contain several cliques, friendship pairs, and solo individuals

Development of cyberbullying

the use of electronic communication to bully an individual

relationship between social media use and psychological well-being

a small negative correlation with psychological well-being

Early adolescence and relationships

those well-liked and have other-sex friends are more likely to enter into a relationship than their withdrawn peers

Engaging in early relationships is correlated with

externalizing behaviors over time

Middle adolescence and relationships

relationships become more frequent and rise in seriousness

Those with a ______ level of emotional competence achieved in friendships have more _________ romantic relationships

higher, successful

Relationships in Late adolescence and early adulthood

median age of first marriage is increasing over time

LGBTQ+ youth and emerging adults

sexual behavior in adolescence is not necessarily predictive of future sexual orientation

Major depressive disorder (MDD)

Depressed or irritable mood, and a loss of pleasure or interest in activities they usually enjoy that persists for two weeks or more

Depression frequently co-occurs with other psychological disorders, including anxiety disorder, conduct disorder, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Non-suicidal self-harm can co-occur with

depression and anxiety

Those at risk for internalizing problems show three cognitive biases

Attention biases for negative information, Engagement in repetitive negative thinking, Predisposition towards absolute thinking

Diathesis-stress model

a person becomes depressed because he or she has a biological risk (diathesis) and because a severe amount of stress has occurred

Problems in interpersonal relationships are a

precursor and ongoing aggravator of depression and anxiety

Both medication and therapy have been proven to be ________ in treatment

effective

Latino youth report relatively ____ rates of suicidal thoughts and behaviors compared to other groups

high

Resilience Framework Two main assumptions

young people need to Develop certain personal qualities and rely on environmental resources to help them overcome risk factors, such as

opportunities to abuse substances

Engaging in problem behaviors and associating with negative friends peaked in

middle to late adolescence

Academic self-beliefs and school motivation ______ gradually across adolescence

declined

The largest gender differences were found in

grades and educational aspirations

Black adolescents reported steady levels of

racial/ethnic identification and perceptions of discrimination

Black students valued education ____ and had _____ occupational aspirations but ______ grades in high school

more, higher, lower

Lower-SES adolescents had

lower psychological well-being, poorer academic outcomes, and less positive peer relationships

The key take-away message from the MADICS study is

that stable, supportive, middle-class families whose teenagers attend typical American public schools provide a secure context for keeping adolescents on track developmentally

Researchers should be wary of ______ effects

cohort

The Child Opportunity Index

sheds light on the differences in opportunities in various communities

Puberty—biological changes during adolescence

The period between childhood and adulthood during which the sexual organs mature, by considering hormonal changes, the adolescent growth spurt, and the development of sexual characteristics as well as the psychological impact of early and late puberty.

The Puberty—biological changes during adolescence begins with what?

adrenarche

what is adrenarche?

normal maturing of adrenal glands in children; happens before puberty due to rising levels of hormones.

The Puberty—biological changes during adolescence continues with

gonadarche

what is gonadarche?

the biological onset of puberty characterized by the reactivation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, causing the gonads (testes/ovaries) to grow and produce sex steroids.

Gonads produce

higher levels of androgens and estrogens through the HPG axis

Menarche

onset of menstruation in females

Spermarche

first ejaculation in males

Influences on the onset of puberty

Genetics, Environmental Factors, Influence of Stress on the Body

Primary and secondary sexual characteristics for girls

Budding of breasts and growth spurt, Pubic hair development, Menarche

Secular trend in menstruation over time

Women's periods are starting earlier and earlier

Primary and secondary sexual characteristics for boys

Enlargement of testes and changes in scrotum, Pubic and underarm hair emerge, Growth of larynx and vocal cords, Maturation of seminal vesicles and prostate gland, Spermarche

Physical Development in Adolescence For Women

Underarm hair growth, Breast development, Enlargement of the uterus, Beginning of menstruation, Pubic hair growth, Ovaries

Physical Development in Adolescence For Men

Facial and underarm hair growth, Larynx enlargement, Chest hair growth, Pubic hair growth, Growth of penis and testes, Beginning of ejaculation

Men and Women have (glands)

Adrenal glands and Pituitary gland (master gland)

Adolescent growth spurt in Girls

Starts around age 10, Continues to about age 16

Adolescent growth spurt in Boys

Starts around age 12 ½, Continues to about age 17 ½

Adolescent growth spurt in Girls and boys

Gain about 40 to 50 percent of adult body weight

Early maturation may initiate a developmental cascade (girls)

For girls, early puberty is associated with negative outcomes. Late-maturing girls have fewer problems

Early maturation may initiate a developmental cascade (boys)

Early-maturing boys have advantages compared with on-time boys. Late-maturing boys have poorer outcomes

When it comes to early maturation, for girls, early onset of puberty is associated with _________ outcomes

negative