spanish+portuguese colonization

Agency

The capacity of individuals to act independently and make choices.

Bias

A tendency to lean in a certain direction, often preventing impartial judgment.

Empire

A large political unit that governs a diverse population over a vast territory.

Maya

An ancient civilization located in southern Mexico and northern Central America.

Aztec (the Mexica)

A Mesoamerican culture known for its powerful empire established in 1325.

Tenochtitlan

The capital city of the Aztec Empire located on an island in Lake Texcoco.

Trade

The exchange of goods and services that fosters cultural diffusion.

Tlacaelel

An Aztec leader credited with establishing the importance of human sacrifice.

Huitzilopochtli

The sun god and patron god of the Aztecs, requiring human sacrifices.

Nezahualcóyotl

A poet and ruler known for his reflections on the fragility of human life.

Inca

The largest imperial state in the Western hemisphere, speaking Quechua.

Machu Picchu

An ancient Incan city built in the 1400s, regarded as a royal or religious retreat.

Quipus

A system of knotted cords used by the Incas for record-keeping.

Mita

A labor service tax required periodically from every household in the Inca Empire.

Chosen women

Young girls selected by the Incas for training in state centers for specific roles.

Gender parallelism

A social structure where both genders have different yet equivalent roles.

Spanish exploration

Initiative primarily motivated by the desire for wealth and the spread of Christianity.

Encomienda

A system where conquistadors were granted land and indigenous people to govern.

Potosí

A city known for its rich silver mines, becoming a vital economic center for Spain.

Columbian Exchange

The widespread transfer of animals, plants, and diseases between the Old and New World.

Middle Passage

The sea route used for the transport of enslaved Africans to the Americas.

Triangular Trade

A transatlantic trade route involving the exchange of goods, including slaves.

Indigenous people

The original inhabitants of a region, often significantly impacted by colonization.

Caribbean islands

A region heavily involved in trade and slavery during European colonization.

Social hierarchy

The organization of society into classes based on wealth, power, and occupation.

Peninsulares

Spanish-born individuals living in the Americas, occupying the highest social rank.

Creole

Individuals of Spanish descent born in the Americas, often holding significant power.

Legitimacy

The principle that rulers must have the right to govern to maintain authority.

Hegemony

Dominance of one group over others, often so prevalent that it becomes unrecognized.

African slavery

The system of forced labor where Africans were taken to work in the Americas.

Toussaint L’Ouverture

Leader of the Haitian Revolution, known for his role in ending slavery.

Jean Jacques Dessalines

Proclaimed the independence of Haiti in 1804, becoming its first ruler.

Racial hierarchy

A social stratification based on perceived racial differentiations.

Mulatto

A person of mixed European and African ancestry.

Mestizo

A person of mixed European and indigenous ancestry.

Casta paintings

Colonial Spanish artworks depicting mixed-race individuals and their social classifications.

Sugar plantations

Large agricultural areas dedicated to the cultivation of sugarcane, heavily reliant on slave labor.

Viceroyalties

Territorial divisions governed by viceroys representing the Spanish crown.

Spanish Civil War

Conflict that stemmed from political and social tensions in Spain during the 20th century.

Reconquista

The period in history when Christian kingdoms reclaimed territory from Muslims in Spain.

Conquistador

Spanish explorers and warriors involved in the conquest of the Americas.

Malintzin (La Malinche)

An indigenous woman who served as Cortés' translator and advisor.

Atahualpa

The last emperor of the Inca Empire before the Spanish conquest.

Hernán Cortés

Spanish conquistador known for leading the attack on the Aztec Empire.

Francisco Pizarro

Conquistador who led the conquest of the Inca Empire.

European exploration motives

Initially focused on acquiring gold, spreading Christianity, and expanding empires.

Atlantic slave trade

The transatlantic transportation of enslaved Africans mainly to the Americas.

Portugal

The first European nation to initiate extensive exploration and colonization.

Mbanza Kongo

Capital city of the Kingdom of Kongo during the Portuguese exploration.

Mvemba Nzinga (Afonso I)

King of Kongo, known for efforts to Christianize his kingdom.

Ferdinand Magellan

portuguese explorer who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe.

Vasco Núñez de Balboa

The first European to see the Pacific Ocean from the Americas.

Civilization growth factors

Contributing aspects like agriculture, trade, and social organization that led to civilization development.

Cultural diffusion

The spread of cultural beliefs and social activities from one group to another.

Encomienda system

Colonial labor system that rewarded Spanish settlers with indigenous labor.

Indigenous autonomy

The self-governing ability of native populations prior to colonization.

Colonial economic systems

Methods of production and trade established by European powers in their colonies.

Diseases impact

The effect of European diseases on Indigenous populations leading to significant declines.

Cultural identity

The shared characteristics and sense of belonging within a specific cultural group.

Plantation economy

Economic system heavily reliant on monoculture crops, often utilizing slave labor.

Peasant revolts

uprisings by local populations against the oppressive measures of colonial rulers.

Conversion to Christianity

Efforts made by European colonizers to promote Christianity among Indigenous populations.

Mestizaje

The process of mixing of different racial and cultural identities, particularly in Latin America.