Additional Flashcards

What is epilepsy?

A neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures caused by abnormal synchronized neuronal activity.

What is a seizure?

A sudden burst of synchronized electrical activity in the brain that disrupts normal brain function.

What is an EEG?

Electroencephalogram — a recording of electrical activity in the brain used to detect seizures.

What type of seizures did Patient H.M. have before surgery?

~10 absence seizures per week, weekly convulsive seizures, resistant to medication.

What brain areas were removed in H.M.’s surgery?

Medial temporal lobes, hippocampus, entorhinal cortex.

What memory problem did H.M. develop after surgery?

Severe anterograde amnesia (unable to form new memories).

What types of memory were normal in H.M.?

Short-term memory, procedural learning.

What is anterograde amnesia?

Inability to form new memories after brain damage.

What is retrograde amnesia?

Loss of memories formed before brain damage.

What is explicit memory?

Conscious recall of facts and experiences.

What is implicit memory?

Unconscious memory for skills and habits.

What is semantic memory?

Memory for facts and general knowledge.

What is episodic memory?

Memory for personal experiences and events.

What is procedural memory?

Memory for skills and motor behaviors.

What is memory consolidation?

The process of transferring short-term memories into long-term storage.

What is memory storage?

Long-term maintenance of stored memories in neural circuits.

What brain structure is responsible for procedural memory?

Striatum of the basal ganglia.

What brain structure is responsible for declarative memory?

Hippocampus.

What diseases impair procedural memory?

Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease.

What is neural plasticity?

The ability of neurons and neural circuits to change in response to experience.

What is Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)?

A long-lasting strengthening of synapses following high-frequency stimulation.

What is Long-Term Depression (LTD)?

A long-lasting weakening of synapses.

How did taxi drivers’ brains change with experience?

Their posterior hippocampus became larger due to spatial navigation demands.

How does an enriched environment affect the brain?

Thicker cortex, more synapses, increased dendritic branching, improved learning.

What is the corpus callosum?

A bundle of fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres.

What are ventricles?

Fluid-filled cavities in the brain containing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

What is the function of the thalamus?

Major relay and integration center for sensory information.

Which sensory system bypasses the thalamus initially?

Olfaction (smell).

What is the function of the hypothalamus?

Regulates homeostasis, hormones, and basic drives.

Why is the knee-jerk reflex so fast?

It is a monosynaptic reflex that does not require brain processing.

What is decussation?

Crossing of neural pathways across the midline of the body.

What protects the brain from injury?

Meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, ventricles.

What does contralateral mean?

Opposite side of the body.

What does ipsilateral mean?

Same side of the body.

What is an odorant receptor?

A receptor protein that binds odor molecules.

What is anosmia?

Loss of the sense of smell.

What is combinatorial coding of odors?

Odors are identified by patterns of activation across multiple receptor types.

What are pheromones?

Chemical signals that influence social and reproductive behavior.

What are tastants?

Chemical substances that stimulate taste receptors.

Why do smell and taste receptor cells regenerate?

Because they are frequently damaged by chemicals and environmental exposure.

What are nociceptors?

Sensory neurons that detect painful or damaging stimuli.

What is the placebo effect?

Pain reduction due to expectation and activation of endogenous opioid pathways.

What is naloxone?

A drug that blocks opioid receptors.

What are enkephalins?

Endogenous opioid peptides that reduce pain transmission.

What neurotransmitter carries pain signals?

Substance P.

What is the Gate Control Theory of pain?

Non-pain sensory signals can block pain transmission in the spinal cord.

What is a receptive field?

The area of sensory space that activates a neuron.

What is lateral inhibition?

A process that enhances contrast between sensory signals.

What type of receptor detects sound?

Hair cells (mechanoreceptors).

What is the McGurk effect?

A visual illusion where seeing mouth movements changes what sound we perceive.

What is conductive hearing loss?

Sound cannot reach the cochlea due to middle ear problems.

What is sensorineural hearing loss?

Damage to hair cells or the auditory nerve.

What is a photopigment?

A molecule that absorbs light and initiates visual transduction.

What are rods specialized for?

Low-light vision.

What are cones specialized for?

Color vision and high visual acuity.

Why is red-green color blindness more common in males?

The opsin genes are located on the X chromosome.

Which retinal cells fire action potentials?

Retinal ganglion cells.

What is an ON-center receptive field?

Activated by light in the center and inhibited by light in the surround.

What is an OFF-center receptive field?

Activated by light in the surround and inhibited by light in the center.

What is a critical period in vision?

A developmental window when visual experience is required for normal visual system development.