additional POLS1005 content

first rights

protection of individuals

• right to life, liberty and security

• freedom from slavery

• freedom from torture

• freedom from arbitrary arrest, detention and exile

• freedom of speech, movement, thought, expression and assembly

• equal protection before the law

• right to own property

• right to vote.

second rights

related to equality and social justice

• right to equality and social justice

• right to join trade unions

• right to adequate living conditions

• right to education

third rights

• culture and community

• scientific advancements

• social order

• international order

pretty informal, broad and difficult to articulate. require inaction!

neo-classical realism

1. status quo states → states who are content

2. revisionist states → states who are not happy where they are and cause drama

3. revolutionary states → revisionists on steroids

offensive realism

mearsheimer

• states are self-seeking, need to get the advantage

• competitive

defensive realism

• states are more likely to get what they want if they cooperate

waltz’s structural realism

• the int. structure generates a tendency towards competition between security seeking states

• there is no safety net, every man for themselves

states act according to the structure of the int. system

realism

war is recurrent and inevitable fact.

1. statism

2. survival

3. self-help

hegemonic stability theory

charles kindleburger

hoddman’s definition on terrorism

• political in aims or motives

• violent or threatens violence

• designed to have repercussions beyond the mediator target or victim

• conducted by organisations or individuals

• perpetrated by sib-national or non-state entity

challenges to sovereignty

1. domination → cold war

2. imposition → japan at the end of WW2

3. intrusion → relationship organised hypocrisy

stephen krasner “sovereignty: organised hypocrisy”

positivism and post-positivism

rationalism (positivism): explaining

reflectionism (post-positivism): understanding

regime theory (krasner)

accounts for the existence of rule governed behaviour in the anarchic int. system

common assumptions:

1. states operate in an anarchic int. system

2. states are rational and unitary actors

3. states are the units responsible for establishing regimes

4. regimes promote int. order

diversionary theory of war

leaders generate foreign policy crises in order to divert attention

laws of war

aka int. humanitarian law

henry dunant

• limit state behaviour in war

• universal ratification

• least-likely case: states at wwar under anarchy should use all available means

• yet the laws of war are widely followed - why?

classical realism

1, we are just like animals

we are serving and self interested jerks

thin gloablisation

smaller numbers, specific issues

thick globalisaiton

many issues, may forms; intrustive and extensive

globalism

freidman ‘farther, faster, deeper, cheaper’

1. open society

2. open economy

3. open technology

problems for realism

• a peaceful end to the cold war

• increased interdependence and int. cooperation

• rise in power and influence of credible actors

treaty of westphalia (1648)

1. establishment of firm territorial boundaries

2. recognition of the right to exist by all workers

3. extended provisions of religious ideation and protection of religious minorities within each state

types of democratic peace

1. normative (shared norms/ ideology)

2. informational (informational, transparency)

3. institutional (institutional credibility)

micheal doyle

democracies do not go to war with each other (democratic peace theory)

liberalism

• human nature is not fixed

• domestic politics matter

• war is not inevitable

• multiple actors matter

neoliberalism institutionalism

• accepts the realist baseline that states are the primary actors

• argues institutions matter

• focuses on absolute gains

• emphasises iteration

classical liberalism ssays states cooperate because of who they are. neoliberalism says states operate because of rational incentives shaped by institutions.

post-modernism

specifically encompasses the idea that there is no objective truth and this power influences knowledge

preventative war

a declining state attacks a rising state while it holds a relative power advantage. rather than waiting for the balance to shift unfavourably.

R2P pillars

1. states own protection responsibility

2. international assistance and capacity building

3. timely and decisive collective response when a state fails

krasners definition of regimes

set of implicit or explicit principles, norms, rules and decision making procedures around with actors expectations converge in a given area of int. relations

jus in bello

the right conduct in war (distinction, proportionality and minimum force)

jus in bellum

the right to go to war

important periods in the rise of IGOs

1. end of WWII

2. end of the cold war

critical theory

• IR from marginal perspectives

• relationship between knowledge, power and ideative formation

• incorporates all sources of knowledge, history, ideas, culture and values.

constructivism

what we see and learn matters; nature vs nuture

1. ideas matter

• everything is socially constructed, nothing is given; we attach meaning to things, we shape things

2. holism

• there is a structure to world politics, but it is a structure of constructed ideas

3. instructed in the relationship between agents (individuals) and structure (institutions, government, state etc.)

justice dilemma

the tension between pursuing criminal prosecution of human rights abusers and achieving peace, as prosecution may creat perverse incentives to avoid surrender.

liberal POV: justice and peace are complementary. accountability decreases future violations and build durable peace

realism POV: justice is a luxury; stability and order come first

constructivism POV: the int. norm of accountability is gradually strengthening - the justice vs. peace trade-off is becoming less acceptable over time

critical theory POV: ask whose justice? international relations often reflect power asymmetries and western agendas

universal periodic review critiques

• punishment is limited to public naming and shaming

reviews are often superficial.

• relational politics means that states are less likely to critique allies, strategic partners etc.

How CSOs keep peace

1. neutral parties resolve informational partners

2. reduce commitment problems

liberalism and institutions

institutions and orgs create opportunity for interaction between states

• this centralises collective actions, holds members to account and manages conflict and agreements

the invisible hand

adam smith

‘when individuals pursue their own self-interest in a free market, they are led as if by an invisible hand - to promote the economic well-being of society as a whole, without intending to do so.’

1. self-interest as the driver

2. competition disciplines behaviour

3. price as a signal

4. spontaneous order (economic coordination is efficient and emerges spontaneously)

dependency theory

argues that global economic relationships systematically disadvantage developing countries and keep them locked in a position of economic subordination to wealthy industrialised nations.

• emerged in latin america in the 1950s-1970s

core claim: underdevelopment is not a natural condition or a stage on the way to development, it is actively produced and maintained by the global organisation

modernisation theory

argues that all countries follow the same linear path from traditional to modern societies, poor countries just needed capital!

international covenant on civil and political rights (ICCPR)

1966 treaty codifying first generation rights; legally binding on state parties

liberalism

to protect individual rights and freedoms

• the belief that progress can occur

• a commitment to furtherance of individual liberties and democracy

• economic interdependence and spread of democracy makes war irrational, therefore obsolete or less likely

• it is possible to project values of order, liberty, justice and toleration into international relations

on war

• war is not a natural condition and peace is not normal

• national interests are safeguarded by more than military means

on human nature

• humans are perfectible

• faith in human reason and progress

on governance

• democracy is necessary for human development, states not the main actors on the int. stage

• not unitary actors, independence is key

philosophical tradtions of:

a) morality; ‘do unto others’

b) humanism; ‘pursuit of mutually beneficial interest’

wilsons 14 points

• outlined plan to end WWI and secure world peace

• wanted to prevent war altogether

• self determination (key part of sovereignty)

• countries should form an alliance to maintain sovereignty (diplomatic idealism)

rebirth of liberalism following WWII

neoliberalism

aka liberal institutionalism in the 1970s

three premises:

1. states interact through multiple channels (formal & informal)

2. security is not always the agenda; multiple issues at different times

3. cost of military conflict

differ from liberals in two major points

1. seperation of facts and values

• it is a theory. not attempting to promote liberal values. based on how the world is not how it should be.

2. interdependence and free trade do not necessarily breed cooperation

• not ‘forces of good’ as liberals would argue but a tool for minimising conflict

• recognition that cooperation is easier in some areas than others.

negative externalities

costs of a good not reflected in its price borne by third parties who neither produce nor consume the good.

• countries that didn’t cause the problem suffer the consequences

example: acid rain caused by the US effected Canadian air quality so they partially resolved it by the US-Canada air quality agreement.

tradgedy of the commons

garrett houdin (1968)

when rational individuals exploit a shared, finite resource without coordination, they collectively destroy it - not out of malice by self-interest.

examples: overfishing, deforestation, ozone depletion and climate change.

roosevelt’s four freedoms

1. freedom of speech

2. freedom of religion

3. freedom from want

4. freedom from fear

incorporated into post war international law.

statutory international law

written, codified laws agreed upon by participating states.

critical theory

social theory oriented towards critiquing and changing society in contrast to traditional theories oriented to understanding or explaining it.

alexander wendt (1992)

anarchy is what states make of it.

“anarchy has no single logic. it does not automatically produce self-help or conflict. what matters is how states interpret anarchy - and that interpretation is shaped by social interaction, ideas and identity.”

• identities and interests are endogenous to interaction → they emerge through state practice, not prior to it.

• institutions don’t just constrain behaviour; they constitute who actors are

• anarchy is not a cause but a permisive condition - it allows various outcomes but determines none.

key concepts:

1. self-help is an institution, not a feature of anarchy

• self help must be learned through interaction. it is one possible structure of identity, not the inevitable product of anarchy

2. the ‘looking glass self’

• states mirror how they are treated. if treated as threats, they becoming threatening. identity forms relatively through what others do.

3. intersubjective knowledge

• what matters is shared understandings - how states collectively read the distribution of power, not power itself.

omar al bishar

sudanese president indicted to the ICC

• charged with genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanities, rape, torture

arrest warrants issued in 2009 and 2010

• first every sitting head of state to be wanted by an international count

wasn’t arrested

• sudan isn’t a member state

• several countries refused to arrest him

  • bashir visited south africa in 2015, they allowed him to leave the country.

bangkok declaration on human rights (1993)

a consensus statement produced by 40 asian governments ahead of the 1993 UN world conference on human rights in vienna.

• share sovereignty and non-interference

• cultural and regional differences

• economic and social rights as priorities (acknowledges the cultural difference)

critical theories

examining knowledge and ideas, recognising it is based primarily on old white men’s perspective. is all about marginal perspectives!!

marxism

focusses on conflict and resolution through to be associated with economic change and the rise of risk and poor classes.

the history. of all societies is the history of class struggles.

• analyses the nature of and consequences of capitalism

  • often insights into globalism and capitalism

systems of marxism:

1. world systems theory

• imperialism and monopoly capitalism; lenin - a dominant one and else developed periphery is global economics suggests that there is no longer harmony of interests between all workers.

2. gramscianism (anotonia gransli 1891-1937)

• why had marxist revolution and stransition to socialism not occured?

• IDEA: in western society, the system is maintained through consent.

  • dominant powers have shaped the world order that suits their interests.

mearsheimer

argues that great powers are locked in constant competition for peace and even if they only want to survive, the structure of the int. system forces them to act aggressively.

creating a tragic situation: conflict is not due to evil intentions, but inevitable system pressures.

offensive realism

states seek to maximise pwoer and aim for hegemony; why? because this is how the int. system works.

• no general government (anarchy)

• states can never fully trust each other

• survival depends on power

therefore: competition and conflict are unavoidable.

key arguments about great powers:

• there is no true ‘status-quo’ states

• all great powers have revisionist tendencies (want more power)

• war is always a real possibility

• peace is temporarr, not permanent.

bandura

aggression is learned, not innate.

people learn aggressive behaviour through observation (modelling) and reinforcement (rewards/punishments)

• aggression is not caused by instinct or frustration aline, but by a complex interaction of social, cognitive and environmental factors.

people learn aggression from (modelling): family, subculture (environment) and media

instigator (triggers of aggression): averse experiences (negative triggers) and incentives (positive motivation), social influences

regulation of aggression (what maintains it): external reinforcement, punishment, vicarious reinforcement, self-reinforcement

three pillars of liberal peace

micheal doyle

liberal peace rests on three pillars. no single pillar is sufficient alone - they must operate together:

1. republican representation (constitutional law)

• accountable government means leaders can’t pursue aggressive wars w/o public cost, electoral punishment discourages reckless foreign policy, transparency enables credible policy making

2. liberal principles (norms) (international law)

• liberal states recognise rights of individuals, and by extension extend presumed legitimacy to other liberal states, publicity is essential for this mutual recognition to function.

3. transnational interdependence (commerce)

• a ‘spirit of commerce’ creates material incentives to maintain peace

• the free trade under rule of law makes both parties better of than others

this theory explains both phenomena:

among liberal states → peace (all three pillars reinforce cooperation)

w/ non-liberal states → war/imperialism

it is a conjuctural theory → the three causes are individually insufficient but collectively powerful. critiques that treat them separately fundamentally misread the argument.

rapports wave of terrorism

terrorism since the 1880s has unfolded four successive ‘waves’, each lasting roughly 40-45 years, each driven by a political event.

wave one: 1880s-1920s (anarchist wave)

• triggered by Czar Alexanders reforms, high profile assasinations, telegrams and media

wave two: 1920s-1960s (anti-colonial wave)

• sparked by versailles and self-determination rhetoric, eliminate police, most successful wave - israel, cyprus and algeria

wave three: late 1960s-1990s (new left wave)

• inspired by vietnam effectiveness, airline hijacking, hostage-taking

wave four: 1979 - present (religious wave)

• triggers: iranian revolution, soviet defeat in afghanistan, new muslim entitiy

• al-qaeda is unique

waves begin because:

1. a poltical event that creates hope by exposing government vulnerability

2. doctrine/technology that enables cooperation across borders

counter-terrorism - roosevelt called the first int. crusade (1901) but the US released the 1904 st. petersburg protocol, the leagues connections were political theature. UN security council action of libya - lockerbye was the worst successful case

manhattan project

first test july 1945

countries with nukes

USA, russia, UK, france, china, india, pakistan, israel and North Korea

nuclear weapons reasons

• technology shapes the nature of warfare across history; the nuclear bomb created a qualitative break - a ‘revolution’ is how force is thought about

• nuclear weapons are most important act for fighting wars by detterence

• alongside nuclear weapons, nuclear technologies (drones, cyber-motion, hybrid war) are reshaping how states use coercion

mutually assured destruction

when both sides have second strike capability, neither can ‘win’ → stability

chemical weapons

chlorine, mustard gas etc. chemical weapons convention 1993 - 1997

biological weapons

small pox, etc. biological weapons convention 1972

hart

‘if you want peace, understand war’

war was intially seen as a virtue, a necessity and something that heralded change.

bargaining model of war

strengthening between the two ranges will be of the better interest of both sides

just war theory

evidence that war was an accepted reality; unavoidable but should be done properly

why does bargaining fail?

1. incomplete information

2. commitment problems

3. indivisibility (good in dispute, cannot be divided w/o destroying its value)

power balancing

efforts by states to protect themselves by enhancing their power; internal balancing & external balancing

internal balancing → the process by which states muster their own power resources

external balancing → the process by which states enter security alliance w/ other states to counter.

anarchy is a permissive condition

anarchy removes the brake agains twar

bargaining war theory (fearon 1998)

anarchy is an active propellant.

mechanism through which anarchy actively pushes states toward war:

1. private information problem (states can bluff)

2. commitment problem (no guarantee states won’t violate their commitments)

dependency theory

former colonies remain economically subordinate to rich nations even after formal independence. emerged in the 1960s-1970s: informed by marxist theory

world systems theory (wallerstein 1974, 1979)

• ‘core’ advanced countries dictate how ‘periphery’ developing countries evolve

• china and india’s rise challenges the permanence of core-periphery

import-substituting industrialisation (ISI)

high tariffs on target imports

subsidies to ‘national champions’ to build domestic manufacturing capacity

• failed from domestic firms shielded from competition

international commodity cartels

devloping countries band together to control supply of a raw material → push up prices (unsuccesful)

OPEC

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

founded in 1960

• 13 members, some success limiting supply:

• constrained member cheating, non-member producing

international commodity agreements (ICAs)

include more supplier and consumer countries, goal price stability (predictable export earnings)