Social Psych Exam 3

What is conformity?

a change in behaviour, beliefs, or attitudes as a result of real or imagined influence of other people

What is normative social influence?

public compliance only, not privately accepted

the influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them

What is informational social influence?

privately accept that this is the right thing

conforming because you want to do the right think and you think that other people know more than you

When are we most likely to conform to informational social influence?

when we are unsure/don't know the answer ourselves, when we perceive people as experts, or when we NEED to be accurate

Sherif's Autokinetic Study (1936)

- report how much the (stationary) light is moving across the room

- after all group reports answer, repeat and report again

- eventually, group's answers converge

- effect still lasting a year later

What are some drawbacks of conformity due to informational influence?

Pluralistic ignorance

Propaganda

Social contagion

What is pluralistic ignorance?

Error when you look to group behaviour to figure out what to do in a scenario but they are also unsure... causes group norm to become something possibly wrong and not privately accepted

What is propaganda?

systematic attempt to spread misleading/emotionally charged info to manipulate mass attitudes and behaviours

(done by conveying that everyone else is doing something, which is convincing during uncertain times)

What is social contagion?

rapid transmission of a behaviour through a crowd (ex. packing up after class)

What is mass psychogenic illness?

When someone reports some symptoms for an illness, people start to think "yeah, i have that too!" even w/o physical evidence

(leads to lots of false alarms)

What are injunctive norms?

what people should do / what is socially acceptable

What are descriptive norms?

What people actually are doing (could be the same as injunctive norms or it could be different)

What is the boomerang effect?

Conveying a social norm (when people are already doing the right thing) that influences people to conform to the social norm and ignore the original right thing

persuasion in a direction that has the opposite impact from the desired effect

ex. "most college students only drink 4 drinks a week!" "oh wow 4?! I guess I can drink some more then"

What makes it more likely to conform to normative social influence?

Less likely?

More:

- Group Unanimity

- Public Response

Less:

- True Partner

- Compromise Partner

- Prior Commitment

- Importance of being accurate / high stakes

What is group unanimity? Impact on likelihood to conform?

How unanimous the opinion of the group is

More unanimous = more likely to conform

What is a true partner? Impact on likelihood to conform?

Someone who goes against the group WITH you / says the same answer as you

Makes it less likely to conform

What is a compromise partner? Impact on likelihood to conform?

Someone who goes against the group but not in the same way as you / not with the same answer

Makes it less likely to conform (easier to go against)

What is impact of public response on likelihood to conform?

When you have to report your answer publicly, you are more likely to conform to the group vs. when you can privately submit your answer

What is the impact of prior commitment on likelihood of conformity?

If you have made a prior commitment to something, it will be easier to resist conformity pressures

ex. if I said I don't like something beforehand, it will be easier for me to go against the group later and speak up about not liking it

How does importance of accuracy affect conformity?

In a situation where there are high stakes / where you need to be accurate, it will be easier to resist conformity pressures and go with the answer that you privately accept (instead of the group norm)

What is the impact of culture on conformity?

(hint: values on group harmony? same vs different cultures within a group?)

When a culture places more emphasis on group harmony and cohesiveness, more likely to conform to group pressures/norm.

When a group is formed of people of the same culture, more likely to conform (vs. strangers or people of a diff culture)

What is social impact theory?

Social influence / pressures depend on strength of the group, immediacy, and number of group members

What does "Strength" refer to in social impact theory?

How important is the group to you?

What is the perceived status of the group?

How cohesive is the group?

What does "Immediacy" refer to in social impact theory?

Closeness in time and space (of other group members)

ex. if they are right beside you waiting for an answer, conformity is more likely

What does "Number" refer to in social impact theory?

What is most likely to conform?

The number of people in the group

W/ 4-5 people, reaches max conformity pressures/influence (with bigger groups that than, conformity pressures don't get any stronger)

Johnny Rocco Studies (1951)

What does it show about the consequences of resisting group pressure?

- in groups of 10

- 3 confederate conditions: modal (always agrees with the group), slider (changes mind to agree with the group), and deviate (always goes against group)

- the group rates how harsh the consequences should be for a young criminal for 45 minutes (w/ check-in @ halfway)

- the most attention is given to the person who does not conform to the group

- likability of confederates: deviant liked the least, slider liked the most

Consequenses: lots of negative attention on you, not liked by group

What are idiosyncrasy credits?

the tolerance a person earns, over time, by conforming to group norms; if enough credits are earned, the person can, on occasion, deviate from the group w/o negative consequence

What is psychological reactance?

the theory that people react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves and perceiving the threatened freedom as more attractive (we feel or act aggressively toward the person that is restricting our freedom)

How is compliance elicited?

(hint: 3 things)

Foot-in-the-door technique

Door-in-the-face technique

Obedience

What is the foot-in-the-door technique?

Is it better for short or long-term compliance?

A small request is made to gain compliance, then after, they are more likely to agree to a larger request

Better for eliciting long-term compliance

Freedman and Fraser (1966)

1. Household Products

2. "Drive Safely"

1. People were more likely to agree to an intensive search through their house to see household products after they had already agreed to do a short self-report survey (53% vs 22%)

2. people were more likely to display a large, ugly DRIVE SAFELY sign in their window after they already agreed to display a small one (79% vs 17%)

What is door-in-the-face technique?

What effect/norm is contributing to this?

A large request is made, knowing that it will probably be refused, then a smaller request is made instead since they said no to the first one (the smaller one seems easier and more reasonable now)

Reciprocity norm

What is the reciprocity norm?

Expectation that since I did something to help you (compromised my big ask into a smaller request), you will do something for me in return (agree to the smaller request)

Cialdini et al. (1975)

"Take delinquents to the zoo"

What technique does this demonstrate?

- asked people to take some delinquents to the zoo (17% agreed)

- asked people to commit 2 hours/week for 2 years to helping delinquents THEN when they declined, asked if they could just take ONE trip to the zoo (50% agreed)

Demonstrates door in the face technique

What is obedience?

Compliance in response to a DIRECT RESPONSE from someone (usually a legitimate authority figure)

Milgram's Obedience Study

how many people continued to the most harsh shock?)

Shock study to test obedience (found that people will usually obey an authority, even if they might think what they are doing is wrong)

65%!! With heart condition guy!!

What are some situational variables in Milgram's study?

- Proximity of learner (closer = less obedient)

- Proximity of researcher (closer = more obedient)

- Setting (didn't rly make a difference)

- Illusion of control (drawing cards = more obedience)

- Legitimacy of authority (changes in many ways)

- Participant variables ex. alone vs in a group (true partner = less obedient, subsidiary task = more obedient)

Burger (2009)

Replicating Milgram

Stopped at 150V for less participant trauma (bc most people in Milgram's who went past that point went all the way)

Result: we have NOT changed (82.5% or people continued past 150V)

What is the definition of a group?

two or more people who interact with each other and influence each other for more than a few moments, and perceive one another as "us"

What are social norms?

Example?

The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviours, values, and beliefs of its members

"On Wednesdays we wear pink"

What are social roles?

A part individuals play as members of a social group, which meets the expectations of that situation

Ex. "the leader", "the organizer", etc.

What is social facilitation?

the strengthening of dominant responses in the presence of others (ex. do better on easy task, do worse on hard task) (WHEN INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE CAN BE EVALUATED)

Why might presence of others lead to arousal?

Evaluation apprehension

Alertness/vigilance (watch for danger)

Distraction

What is vigilance?

the action or state of keeping careful watch for possible danger or difficulties

What is evaluation apprehension?

concern for how others are evaluating us / fear of being judged

Zajonc, Heingartner, & Herman (1969)

Cockroach Audience Study

W/ easy maze, cockroaches made it through faster when they had an audience... w/ harder maze, they made it through slower with an audience

What is social loafing?

Tendency for people to do worse on simple tasks when in the presence of others... less individual effort... sum of all individual efforts does NOT equal the group effort

(WHEN INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE CAN NOT BE EVALUATED)

When does social loafing NOT occur?

- group is important to us

- high stakes / important task

- highly cohesive group

- challenging task / it has a high appeal to us / we have a big involvement

Shepperd (2001) Gum for the Troops

- can see gum (empty bowl) vs can't (box w/ lid w/ other gum in it already)

- important (for the troops) vs not (thrown out)

- most social loafing w/ no importance w/ no individual evaluation (lid box)

What is deindividuation?

loss of self-awareness & evaluation apprehension bc people are in a group or anonymous

Leads to loosening of normal constraints on behaviour ("loosening up")

What causes deindividuation?

- being in a group

- being anonymous

- wearing an identity-obstructing costume

- feeling like we can't be seen (ex. in a car at a red light)

Diener et al (1976)

Trick or treating costumes

- alone vs in a group

- anonymous costume vs identified (by name)

- anonymous in a group most likely to take more than one candy (over 55%), alone and identified least likely (under 10%) ... both other conditions 20%

Zimbardo (1969)

Costume shock: deindividuation

- adult in costume vs not (identifiable)

- obscured identity more likely to administer a larger shock

- obscured identity = more aggressive behaviour

Ross, Anderson, & Campbell (2001)

"Don't look in the box!"

- mirror vs no mirror vs identity completely obscured

- guess what is inside this box based on the noise it's making!

- researcher leaves the room briefly to test if they look in the box to cheat or not

- mirror (self-aware) looked the least, deindividuized (costume) looked the most

What is process loss?

any aspect of group interactions that inhibits good problem solving

Why might process loss occur?

- conformity pressures

- might not chose most competent member to lead/share

- social loafing

- communication problems (not listening, might not share unique information)

What is risky shift?

the tendency for a group to make riskier decisions that individuals

What term replaced risky shift?

Group polarizaiton

What is group polarization?

Tendency for a group to make decisions that are MORE EXTREME than the initial inclinations of individual members (ex. more risky OR more safe if a lot is at stake)

Why might group polarization occur?

- persuasive arguments interpretation

- social comparison interpretation

- aligning w/ opinions that are the same as yours makes you more confident and therefore, you might be willing to be more extreme / risky about your idea

What is groupthink?

a type of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness & solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner

(everyone thinks/acts the same way to maintain cohesiveness)

When does groupthink occur?

when...

- a group is highly cohesive

- group is isolated / protected from opposing views

- very directive/ influential leader

- time pressure/stress

- no allowance for consideration of views within group

What are the symptoms of groupthink?

- illusion of invulnerability ("we have always been right in the past")

- belief in a moral correctness of the group

- rationalization / justification of group decisions

- stereotyped/simplistic views of outgroups

- conformity pressures

- "mindguards" (those who protect group from information that disagrees with group stance)

What are mindguards (in groupthink)?

some members protect the group from information that would call into question the effectiveness or morality of its decisions

(those who protect group from information that disagrees with group stance)

Space Shuttle Challenger Explosion (1986)

What did this demonstrate and how?

- NASA's top decision makers went along w/ launch even tho engineers warned against it bc of cold weather

- Demonstrated groupthink

- directive leader speaking for everyone, illusion of invulnerability, justification of decision (everyone waiting, losing excitement/morale), time pressure (night before launch), simplifying opposition arguments ("so you're trying to change our launch criteria?")

How can you avoid groupthink?

- group leader's behaviour: listen to all views, do not side, be impartial

- solicit outside opinions (maybe even assign a devils advocate)

- use subgroups (talk in small groups before big group... could enforce true partners and make people have more of a voice)

What do the ABC's stand for? (components of prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination)

affective component (prejudice)

behavioural component (discrimination)

cognitive component (stereotypes)

What is the affective component of the ABC's?

prejudice

What is the behavioural component of the ABC's?

discrimination

What is the cognitive component of the ABC's?

stereotypes

What is social categorization?

Grouping stimuli according to perceived similarities (basically creating a schema for a group)

What is an ingroup?

a group to which a person belongs and with which the person feels a sense of identity

What is an outgroup?

everyone else... NOT a group with which one identifies

What is social identity?

the "we" aspect of our self-concept that comes from our group membership

(the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships)

Blascovich, Wyer, Swart, & Kibler (1997)

Black vs white circle or face... how quick guess ambiguous?

- how long it took people to classify a black face or a white face or an ambiguous face was measured

- with coloured circles (instead of faces), there was no difference in time of classification for prejudiced people vs not prejudiced people (measures beforehand)

- with faces, prejudices people took a lot longer to sort

Why might nonprejudiced people take longer to sort black vs white vs ambigious faces into 2 categories? (as was shown in this study)

Blascovich, Wyer, Swart, & Kibler (1997)

Non-prejudices people were more afraid to get it wrong... did not want to make assumptions right away

What was shown about vocalizations when prejudices vs nonprejudices people were sorting white vs black faces into categories?

Blascovich, Wyer, Swart, & Kibler (1997)

The prejudiced people made a LOT more (nonverbal) vocalizations when sorting (ex. hmm, oh I don't really know, looking uncomfortable, etc)

What is in-group bias?

positive feelings and special treatment for those in our in-group (tendency to favour)

Tajfel's studies on minimal groups

- estimate the number of dots on the screen: 2 groups based on whether you underestimated the number of dots on the screen vs overestimate OR klee style vs kadinsky style art (both are just super random ways of putting people into 2 groups)

- not only did they want their ingroup to do well, but they wanted to do BETTER than the outgroup (it was not a competition)

- shows that very minimal grouping is needed to show in-group bias (doesn't have to be a deep identity rooted in your group or anything)

Jane Elliot (1968) "A class divided"

- brown eyes vs blue eyes

- when blue eyes said to be better and get some special privileges, MAD discrimination happening (and vice versa)

What is out-group homogeneity?

Basically stereotyping... whereas in an in-group you recognize your individual differences, we tend to assume all people in the out-group are the same

Quattrone & Jones (1980)

Music choices in uni rivals

What concept does this support?

- shown video of Rutgers student vs Princeton student (either in-group or out-group) who was asked what kind of music he preferred (rock vs classical)

- had to predict what kind they would say

- asked to predict what % of other people from that school would make same choice

- if student was in out-group, it was predicted that they represented everyone else very highly (ex. I think that 70% of other students would agree)

These findings support out-group homogeneity

What is a stereotype?

A generalized belief about the personalized attributed of a group of people (a type of schema)

Are stereotypes a type of schema?

Yup!!

Why do stereotypes persist? (3 reasons)

- Confirmation bias

- Illusory correlation

- Self-fulfilling prophecy

What is stigma consciousness?

when you are aware that your group is part of a stereotype, you are expecting people to treat you differently, which might chronically modify your behaviour

(a person's expectation of being victimized by prejudice or discrimination)

What is stereotype threat?

when you are aware that your group is part of a stereotype, you are expecting people to treat you differently, which might alter your behaviour in a specific situation to fulfill this

(self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype)

What is a key difference between stigma consciousness and stereotype threat?

Stigma consciousness is a chronic ongoing behaviour, while stereotype threat is more specific to a particular situation

What are some ways to reduce stereotype threat?

- TEACH STUDENTS ABOUT STEREOTYPE THREAT

- remove environmental cues that prime thinking about stereotype

- take steps to directly counter stereotype (ex. tell people no differences among groups have been found on this task)

- create mental "overlap" among social categories by focusing on commonalities (so like removing the groups strict borders... making the line fuzzy)

- reframe purpose of test or activity (low stakes, not diagnostic)

- expose individuals to positive role models from target group (people who go against stereotype)

- reframe arousal in terms of social facilitation

Do schemas use automatic or controlled processing?

Automatic

What is the impact of controlled processing on stereotypes?

When we are motivated and able to use our controlled processing, we may be able to reject a stereotype!

What is automatic processing?

unconscious encoding of incidental information (without using conscious effort)

What is controlled processing?

mental processing that involves conscious attention and awareness (deliberate, reflective, and concious)

"Donald"-type studies (Devine, 1989)

Negative stereotype words

- High vs low prejudice groups

- List all stereotypes you are aware of

- use of memorization list to prime stereotypes in participants subconscious (the words that were meant to prime were negative words associated with a certain stereotype)

- complete an evaluation of "Donald" (stories about a delinquent... answers would vary based on if you are using the stereotype in your automatic processing)

- Result: NO difference in evaluation (because this used automatic processing)

- List your attitudes towards a certain racial group

- Result: big difference between high vs low prejudice groups bc they can use controlled processing for this one and can therefore reject a stereotype

"Donald"-type studies (Lepore & Brown, 1997)

Neutral stereotype words

How does this study differ from the original?

- High vs low prejudice groups

- List all stereotypes you are aware of

- use of memorization list to prime stereotypes in participants subconscious (the words that were meant to prime were NEUTRAL words associated with a certain stereotype)

- complete an evaluation of "Donald" (stories about a delinquent... answers would vary based on if you are using the stereotype in your automatic processing)

- Result: NO difference in evaluation (because this used automatic processing)

- List your attitudes towards a certain racial group

- Result: big difference between high vs low prejudice groups bc they can use controlled processing for this one and can therefore reject a stereotype

The difference is that this study used neutral words instead of negatively associated ones. This shows that just priming the stereotype is enough, even if it is not primed in a negative way.

What is the conversion model? (stereotypes)

When you experience something SO dramatically against your stereotype that you are actually able to fully change what your stereotype is

What is the bookkeeping model? (stereotypes)

When you keep consistently observing behaviour that does not fit with your stereotype, so you are gradually able to change your stereotype

What two things does the subgrouping model consist of?

Subgrouping and subtyping

What is subgrouping?

When you meet individuals who deviate from your stereotype, so you adjust your stereotype so that there is a new "subgroup" that includes these new people

What is subtyping?

When you meet people who do not fit your stereotype, so you see them as "EXCEPTIONS to the rule"