true real bio

What is an independent variable?

The factor you change or manipulate (the cause).

What is a dependent variable?

The factor you measure or observe (the effect).

What is the purpose of a control group?

It serves as a baseline for comparison under normal conditions.

What are the four main types of macromolecules?

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids.

What is the monomer of a carbohydrate?

Monosaccharide (simple sugar).

What are the monomers of a lipid?

Glycerol and fatty acids.

What is the monomer of a protein?

Amino acid.

What is the monomer of a nucleic acid?

Nucleotide.

What is an enzyme?

A protein catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions.

How do enzymes speed up biochemical reactions?

By lowering the activation energy.

What does it mean when an enzyme is denatured?

It loses its shape and stops working due to extreme heat or pH.

What is a prokaryotic cell?

A simple cell with no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles (e.g., bacteria).

What is a eukaryotic cell?

A complex cell that contains a nucleus and organelles (e.g., plants/animals).

What is the function of the mitochondria?

Cellular respiration (makes ATP energy for the cell).

What is the function of a ribosome?

Protein synthesis (makes proteins).

What is the function of a chloroplast?

Photosynthesis (converts sunlight into glucose).

What is the function of a lysosome?

Breaks down cellular waste and debris using enzymes.

What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for transport.

What does semi-permeable mean?

It only allows certain molecules to pass through while blocking others.

What is passive transport?

Movement from high to low concentration that requires no energy.

What is active transport?

Movement from low to high concentration that requires energy (ATP).

What happens to an animal cell placed in a hypertonic solution?

Water leaves the cell, causing it to shrink.

What is the chemical equation for photosynthesis?

6CO₂ + 6H₂O + light → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂.

Where do the Light-Dependent Reactions occur?

In the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast.

Where does the Calvin Cycle (Light-Independent Reactions) occur?

In the stroma of the chloroplast.

What is chlorophyll?

The primary pigment in plants that absorbs light for photosynthesis.

What color of light does chlorophyll reflect?

Green light.

What is the primary product or purpose of the Calvin Cycle?

To produce glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆).

What is the chemical equation for cellular respiration?

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ATP.

What are the three main stages of cellular respiration?

Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and the Electron Transport Chain (ETC).

What does anaerobic mean?

A process that does not require oxygen.

Which stage of cellular respiration is anaerobic?

Glycolysis.

Where in the cell does glycolysis take place?

In the cytoplasm.

Where in the cell does the Krebs Cycle take place?

In the mitochondrial matrix.

Where in the cell does the Electron Transport Chain take place?

On the inner membrane (cristae) of the mitochondria.

What process occurs after glycolysis if oxygen is not present?

Fermentation.

Which stage of cellular respiration produces the most ATP?

The Electron Transport Chain (ETC).

What happens during the S phase of Interphase?

DNA replication (the cell copies its chromosomes).

What is the purpose of mitosis?

Growth and tissue repair (produces 2 identical body cells).

What are the four main stages of mitosis in order?

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase (PMAT).

What happens during Metaphase of mitosis?

Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.

What happens during Anaphase of mitosis?

Sister chromatids pull apart to opposite sides of the cell.

What is cancer?

Uncontrolled cell division caused by a breakdown in cell cycle regulation.

What is a genotype?

The genetic allele combination of an organism (e.g., BB, Bb, bb).

What is a phenotype?

The physical trait or appearance expressed (e.g., brown eyes).

What does homozygous mean?

Having two identical alleles for a gene (e.g., BB or bb).

What does heterozygous mean?

Having two different alleles for a gene (e.g., Bb).

What is Mendel's Law of Segregation?

Alleles separate during gamete formation, so each gamete only carries one copy.

What is incomplete dominance?

An inheritance pattern where traits blend to create an intermediate phenotype (Red x White = Pink).

What is codominance?

An inheritance pattern where both alleles are fully and distinctly expressed (Black x White = Speckled).

Why are sex-linked recessive traits more common in males?

They are on the X chromosome, and males (XY) only have one X copy.

What are the three parts of a DNA nucleotide?

Deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

What are the base-pairing rules for DNA?

Adenine (A) with Thymine (T); Cytosine (C) with Guanine (G).

What does semi-conservative replication mean?

Each new DNA molecule contains one original strand and one new strand.

What is the function of the enzyme helicase?

It unzips the DNA double helix by breaking hydrogen bonds.

What is the function of DNA polymerase?

It builds the new complementary DNA strand and proofreads errors.

What is transcription?

The process where DNA is copied into mRNA inside the nucleus.

What is translation?

The process where a ribosome reads mRNA to build an amino acid chain (protein).

What are three structural differences between DNA and RNA?

RNA is single-stranded, has ribose sugar, and uses Uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T).

What is the function of mRNA?

It carries the genetic instructions from DNA out to the ribosome.

What is the function of tRNA?

It transfers the correct amino acid to the ribosome during translation.

What is a point mutation?

A change in a single nucleotide base (substitution).

What is a frameshift mutation?

An insertion or deletion of a nucleotide that alters the entire reading frame.

What is natural selection?

The process where organisms with traits best adapted to their environment survive and reproduce more.

What is a homologous structure?

Anatomically similar structures inherited from a common ancestor, but used for different functions.

What is an analogous structure?

Structures with similar functions but different anatomy, evolved separately without a close common ancestor.

What is a vestigial structure?

Reduced or non-functional remnants of structures that were useful to an ancestor (e.g., whale hip bone).

What factor determines if a genetic mutation is beneficial, neutral, or harmful?

The specific environment the organism lives in.

What is an abiotic factor?

A non-living component of an ecosystem (e.g., water, sunlight, temperature).

What is a biotic factor?

A living or once-living component of an ecosystem (e.g., plants, animals, bacteria).

What is an autotroph?

An organism that makes its own food (producer).

What is a heterotroph?

An organism that must consume other living things for energy (consumer).

How much energy is successfully transferred to the next level in an energy pyramid?

About 10%.

What is primary succession?

Ecological growth that begins in an area with no soil (like bare volcanic rock).

What is secondary succession?

Ecological regrowth in an area where soil remains intact after a disturbance (like a forest fire).

What is mutualism?

A symbiotic relationship where both species benefit (+/+).

What is commensalism?

A symbiotic relationship where one species benefits and the other is unharmed/unaffected (+/0).

What is parasitism?

A symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits and the host is harmed (+/-).