23) Corpus linguistics - utilization in ELT, language change in different text types, registers

**Collocation**

A word or phrase that is often used with another word or phrase in a way that sounds correct, consisting of exactly two main combinations: grammatical (e.g., make a decision) and lexical (e.g., strong coffee).

**Types of collocations**

Lexical pairings consisting of specific structures such as verb + noun (take a break), adjective + noun (heavy rain), adverb + adjective (deeply disappointed), verb + adverb (run quickly), and noun + noun (train station).

**Utilization of collocations in ELT**

The pedagogical application of collocations consisting of building vocabulary, correcting errors, and designing practice activities strictly to improve naturalness, fluency, and effective communication.

**Discourse analysis**

The study of how language is used in communication, consisting of focusing strictly on the structure and function of spoken or written texts in context, and examining how exactly meaning is created, interpreted, and influenced by social, cultural, and situational factors.

**Key concepts of discourse analysis**

The core elements of this discipline consisting exactly of cohesion, coherence, speech acts, turn-taking and interaction, framing, and context.

**Stylistics**

The study of language and its artistic or expressive qualities within texts, consisting of uncovering how exactly language creates meaning, evokes emotions, and conveys aesthetic effects.

**Key areas of stylistic analysis**

Analytical focuses consisting of lexical choices (word selection), syntactic structures (sentence length and complexity), figurative language (metaphors, similes), discourse features (narrative techniques, point of view), and genre/register variations.

**Language changes**

The dynamic and ever-evolving nature of language consisting of shifts occurring at exactly six levels: lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic.

**Text types**

Categories of texts consisting of shared common linguistic features, structures, and communicative purposes.

**Features of context of situation**

The three factors influencing text types consisting exactly of the field of discourse (experiential meaning), the tenor of discourse (interpersonal meaning), and the mode of discourse (logical meaning).

**Narrative text type**

A text type consisting of telling a story, which includes descriptions and a sequence of events unfolding over time (e.g., short stories, biographies).

**Descriptive text type**

A text type consisting of "painting" a picture with words by comparing and contrasting things (e.g., essays, poetry).

**Argumentative text type**

A text type consisting of persuading the reader to adopt a specific point of view, which strictly includes providing evidence and utilizing rhetorical techniques (e.g., speeches, essays).

**Instructional text type**

A text type consisting of providing instructions, which often includes diagrams or illustrations (e.g., user manuals, recipes).

**Comparison (Expository) text type**

A text type consisting of explaining or informing, which often includes headings, subheadings, bullet points, or numerical listings (e.g., textbooks, news articles).

**Multimodal texts**

Texts consisting of combining multiple modes of communication, strictly relying on visual (colors, fonts, images), linguistic (written/spoken text), audio (sound effects, music), gestural (body language), and spatial elements to convey meaning.

**Register**

The variety of language used in a specific situation or for a particular purpose, consisting of being influenced strictly by the field (topic), tenor (relationship between speakers), and mode (spoken or written language).

**Categories of register**

A classification consisting of exactly four types: familiar (slang/jargon, lacking grammar/punctuation), informal (conversational tone), formal (academic writing), and ceremonial (historical documents/speeches).

**Quantitative approach**

A methodological approach consisting of measuring and counting linguistic phenomena (such as frequency, collocations, keywords) to provide objective, replicable data and reveal large-scale patterns that might not be noticeable manually.

**Qualitative approach**

A methodological approach consisting of close reading and detailed analysis (concordance, discourse, and contextual analysis) strictly to capture subtle meanings, context-dependent interpretations, and ideological relationships.

**Multidimensional approach (MD)**

A specific methodology developed by Douglas Biber in the 1980s consisting of bridging both quantitative and qualitative approaches specifically to analyze linguistic variation across texts.

**Biber's five dimensions**

The core analytical axes of the MD approach consisting exactly of: involved vs. informational production, narrative vs. non-narrative discourse, explicit vs. situation-dependent reference, overt persuasion vs. reportage, and abstract vs. non-abstract information.

**Steps of an MD analysis**

A systematic research process consisting of exactly five stages: corpus selection, feature extraction, statistical processing, interpretation of dimensions, and comparison/validation.

**Corpus-based (Top-down) approach**

A deductive methodology consisting of using corpora strictly as empirical evidence to test, refine, or illustrate pre-existing linguistic theories and hypotheses through structured analysis.

**Corpus-driven (Bottom-up) approach**

An inductive exploratory methodology consisting of deriving linguistic categories and patterns directly from the data without imposing any pre-existing theoretical assumptions, aimed strictly at generating completely new theories.

**Usage-based linguistics**

A linguistic approach asserting that grammar is not a fixed abstract system, but rather consists of structures shaped entirely by frequency, repetition, entrenchment, and cognitive processing of chunks and patterns.

**Application of corpus studies in pedagogy**

The practical educational use of corpora consisting of curriculum development, building lexical/grammatical awareness, error analysis, material design, and utilizing specific tools like concordancers (AntConc, Sketch Engine) and learner corpora (ICLE, LINDSEI).