Biological Sciences (1)

Paul Broca

Examined behavioral deficits in people w/ brain damage (legions)
Speech Production

Hermann von Helmholtz

Speed of nerve impulse (reaction time)
Made psychology a science

Sir Charles Sherrington

Inferred existence of synapses
Wrong about type of process (electric → really chemical)

Sensory/Afferent Neurons:

transmit sensory info from receptors → brain/spinal cord

Interneurons:

predominantly in brain/spinal cord & linked to reflexive (CNS) behavior

Motor/Efferent Neurons:

transmit motor info from brain/spinal cord → muscles/glands

Reflex Arcs:

use interneurons (spinal cord) to relay info to source of stimuli & brain simultaneously

Central Nervous System (CNS):

brain/spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

most cranial/spinal nerve & connects CNS to rest of body
split into somatic/autonomic

Somatic Nervous System:

voluntary & skeletal muscle & motor neurons

Autonomic Nervous System:

involuntary & glands & smooth/cardiac muscle
split into sympathetic/parasympathetic

Sympathetic:

activated by stress, fight/flight (F/F)

↑ heartrate, redistribute blood to muscles of locomotion, ↑ BG concentration, relax bronchi, ↓ digestion/peristalsis, dilate eyes (max light intake), release epinephrine/adrenaline into bloodstream, inhibit saliva, stimulate sweating/piloerection, inhibit bladder contraction

Parasympathetic:

conserve energy, increase digestion (rest/digest–R/D)

Acetylcholine responsible for parasympathetic response

Contract pupil, stimulate saliva, constrict bronchi, slow heartbeat, stimulate peristalsis/endocrine secretion, stimulate bile release, contract bladder

Meninges:

Protective connective tissue layers covering CNS & Associated with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Pia mater, arachnoid mater, dura mater (PAD)

Neural Tube

3 primary vesicles (hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain) & develop into 5 total

cerebral cortex

Outer layer of cerebrum

Higher cognition: language, planning, decision-making, impulse control, problem solving

Hindbrain/Rhombencephalon

Myelencephalon (Medulla Oblongata): lower brain structure responsible for regulating vital functions (breathing, heart rate, autonomic survival functions)

Metencephalon

Pons: relay center between brain regions & sleep/arousal involvement

Cerebellum: refined motor movements (posture/balance/coordination)

Reticular Formation: arousal/alertness

Midbrain/Mesencephalon

Sensorimotor reflexes & visual/auditory orienting reflexes

Superior Colliculus: visual reflexes

Inferior Colliculus: auditory reflexes

Forebrain/Prosencephalon

Telencephalon

Cerebral Cortex: complex perceptual, cognitive, behavioral processes

Basal Ganglia: movement

Limbic system: emotion/memory

Diencephalon (Thalamus/Hypothalamus/Posterior Pituitary Gland/Pineal Gland)

Thalamus: sensory relay station

Hypothalamus: hunger/thirst & emotion & homeostasis & endocrine regulation

Brain Lesions Study

Damage/removal of brain area → infer function

Electric Stimulation Study

Stimulate cortex → map function/behavioral maps

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Scalp electrodes & measures electrical activity & good temporal resolution & poor spatial resolution & useful for sleep/seizures

Regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF)

More blood flow = more neural activity

CT (computed tomography):

x-rays, structure, fast, radiation

Fast/cheap, good for gross anatomy, bleeding, fractures

PET (positron emission tomography):

radioactive glucose/tracer, function/metabolism, radiation

Good for cancer/brain activity patterns

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging):

magnetic fields, structure, high detail, no radiation

Best for soft tissue/anatomy, slower/expensive

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging):

blood oxygen/flow changes, function/activity, no radiation

Thalamus:

relay station for incoming sensory info (except smell) & sort/transmit to appropriate areas of cerebral cortex

Hypothalamus:

homeostasis functions & connect to endocrine (anterior pituitary) via hypophyseal portal system & important in emotional/high arousal states
4F → Feed, Flight, Fight, (Sexual) Functioning

Lateral Hypothalamus:

hunger center (receptors detect when body needs food/fluid)

Triggers eating/drinker → w/out starve

lack hunger

Ventromedial Hypothalamus:

satiety center (provides signals to stop eating)

W/out obese

very much hungry

Anterior Hypothalamus:

controls sexual behavior & regulate sleep/body temp

W/out → permanent inhibition of sexual activity

Asexual

Posterior Pituitary:

made of asexual projections from hypothalamus & site of release for hypothalamic hormones (ADH–vasopressin & oxytocin)

Pineal Gland:

role in biological rhythms & secretes melatonin (regulate circadian rhythm)

Basal Ganglia:

coordinate muscle movement, smooth movements/maintain posture (receive info from cortex → brain/spinal cord)

Limbic System:

emotion/memory

HIPPO HATS
hippocampus
hypothalamus
amygdala
thalamus
septal nuclei

Septal Nuclei:

pleasure, addiction

Amygdala:

fear/aggression & damage → docility & hypersexual state

Hippocampus:

consolidate memories & redistribute remote memories to cerebral cortex (long-term) & communicate w/ parts of limbic system via fornix

Damage → anterograde amnesia (unable to establish new long-term memories)

Cerebral Cortex/Neocortex:

Bumpy surface made up of bumps/fold → increase surface area & 2 hemisphere & 4 lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal) F-POT

Frontal Lobe: Prefrontal Cortex

Executive function: planning, decision-making, impulse control, personality

Attention/working memory

Damage → impulsive, disinhibited personality changes

Frontal Lobe: Primary motor cortex

Precentral gyrus

Initiates voluntary movement

Contralateral control

Frontal Lobe: Broca’s Area

Speech production; usually left hemisphere

Damage → understands language but struggles to speak/expressive aphasia

Parietal Lobe: Somatosensory Cortex

Postcentral gyrus (behind central sulcus)

Processes somatosensory information (touch, pressure, temperature, pain, proprioception)

Contralateral body sensation

Central Region of Parietal Lobe

Spatial awareness/orientation & attention to environment

Occipital Lobe: Visual/Striate Cortex

Primary visual cortex/striate cortex

Processes visual information

Temporal Lobe: Auditory Cortex

Processes auditory information (sound, speech, music)

Temporal Lobe: Wernicke’s area

Language comprehension/reception

Usually left hemisphere

Damage → fluent/receptive aphasia (nonsensical speech & poor comprehension)

Temporal Lobe: Other roles

Memory, emotion

contralateral vs ipsilaterally

normal: one side of brain communicates w/ opposite side of body
hearing: cerebral hemisphere communicate w/ same side of body

dominant vs nondominant hemisphere

left, analytical function (details, language, logic, math, broca/wernicke)

right, intuition, creativity, music cognition, spatial processing, big picture, tone interpretation

Acetylcholine:

PNS: skeletal muscle contraction & parasympathetic nervous system

CNS: attention/arousal & memory

Low → alzheimer’s

Epinephrine/Norepinephrine:

catecholamines (emotion) & Monoamines/Biogenic Amines

fight-or-flight & release from adrenal medulla

SNS (low depression, high mania)

dopamine

catecholamine

High conc in basal ganglia → smooth movement/maintain posture

Imbalance → schizophrenia, parkinsons

Serotonin

monoamine/biogenic amine & regulate mood/eat/sleep/dream

Low: depression

High: mania

GABA || Glycine:

main || inhibitory neurotransmitter in CNS & stabilizes neural activity in brain & hyperpolarization

Endorphins

Neuropeptide/neuromodulator (slower, longer-lasting) & natural painkillers

Endocrine System

Use hormones (bloodstream) & slower than nervous system (longer-lasting)

Endocrine System: Hypothalamus

Links nervous/endocrine & homeostasis & regulates pituitary

Hypophyseal portal system (connect hypothalamus → anterior pituitary & hypothalamus regulation of anterior pituitary hormone release)

Endocrine System: Pituitary gland

“Master gland” & releases hormones controlling other endocrine glands & controlled by hypothalamus

Anterior: release hormones (FSH, LH, ACTH, GH, Prolactin) that regulate endocrine gland & controlled by hypothalamus

Endocrine System: Adrenal Glands

above kidney

Adrenal medulla: release epinephrine/norepinephrine (SNS- F/F)

Adrenal cortex: produces corticosteroids/sex hormones & releases cortisol

Endocrine System: Gonads

ovaries/testes & produce sex hormones & reproduction/libido

Adaptive value

extent a trait/behavior positively benefits a species by influencing evolutionary fitness/adaptability of species

Family Studies vs Twin Studies vs Adoption Studies

look at relative frequency of a trait w/in family compared to gen poplimited → families share both genetic & environmental

compare concordance rates between monozygotic & dizygotic twins (twins raised apart)

compare similarities between biological/adopted parent & adopted child

Neurulation:

3-4 weeks gestational

Notochord stimulate ectoderm to fold → neural groove → neural tube w/ neural crest

Neural crest → spread out throughout body & differentiate into diff tissues

Neural tube → CNS

Altar plate: sensory neurons

Basal plate: motor neurons

Fetus

Umbilical cord connects fetus ↔ placenta

Placenta exchanges: oxygen/nutrients to fetus & waste from fetus to mother

Environmental factors/exposure to maturation (Maternal)
(malnutrition, narcotics, smoking, alcohol, x-ray, thalidomide, antiepileptic medication)

Abnormal development (Slow growth, mental disability, reduce immunity)

Neonatal withdrawal/dependence

Slow growth, increased fetal heart rate, premature

Slowed growth (physical/psychological)

Developmental defects

Missing/malformed limbs

Neural tube defects

Motor Reflexes (Primative)

disappear w/ age

Rooting reflex: turn head in direction of stimuli that touches cheek

Moro reflex: extend arms & slowly withdraw/cry → response to falling sensation

Babinski reflex: toes spread apart when foot stimulated (big toe extended)

Grasping reflex: infant closes fingers around object placed in hand

Motor Skills

Gross: movement from large muscle groups & whole body motions

Fine: smaller muscles & specific/delicate movement

Social: developmental milestones
7 mo
1 yr
2 yr
3 yr
5 yr
6-12 yr
teenage

Stranger anxiety, solitary play

Separation anxiety, onlooker play

Parallel play, no, 2 word sentence

Sex type play, gender identity, knows name, full sentences, toilet training

peer conformity, romantic feelings

same sex friend groups

independence, romantic/sexual relationships

overall developmental trends (language, motor, social)

increasingly complex

gross → fine from head → toe & core → periphery

parent-oriented → self-oriented → other-oriented

franz gall

Phrenology (developed trait → part responsible larger)

Measure psychological traits via measuring skull

Pierre Flourens

Specific parts of brain have specific functions

Discovered via extirpation (removal of parts of brain)

William James

Functionalism: how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment

Father of American Psychology

John Dewey

Functionalism: focus on study of organism as a whole as it functions to adapt

oppose reflex arc (reacting is broken into parts)

neuropsychology

study of connections between nervous system & behavior & focus on function of brain regions

Glutamate:

Main excitatory neurotransmitter in CNS & learning/memory