Unit 1

biological perspective

focuses on how the body's physical structures and chemicals, such as brain structures, neurotransmitters, and genetics, influence behavior and mental processes.

behavioral perspective

focuses on how the environment shapes observable behavior through learning, including the influence of reinforcement and punishment.

cognitive perspective

focuses on mental processes such as thinking, memory, attention, and decision-making, and how they influence behavior.

evolutionary perspective

focuses on how natural selection has shaped behaviors and mental processes to increase survival and reproduction.

humanistic perspective

focuses on personal growth, free will, and the inherent goodness of people seeking self-actualization.

psychodynamic perspective

focuses on how unconscious thoughts, internal conflicts, and early childhood experiences influence behavior.

sociocultural perspective

focuses on how social interactions, cultural norms, and societal expectations shape behavior and mental processes.

confirmation bias

the tendency to seek out information that aligns with one's own point of view while dismissing information that challenges those beliefs.

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after an outcome has occurred, that one could have anticipated or predicted it.

overconfidence

the tendency to overestimate one's knowledge, abilities, or the likelihood of being correct.

experimental study

a research design where the researcher manipulates at least one independent variable and uses random assignment to determine cause and effect.

non-experimental study

research methodologies that do not involve manipulating variables or random assignment, such as case studies or naturalistic observations.

case study

an in-depth examination of a specific individual, group, or situation to provide detailed insights.

generalize

the ability to apply the findings of a study to a larger population, different settings, or other situations.

correlational study

examines the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them to determine how they relate.

meta-analysis

a "study of studies" where researchers combine the results of many different studies on the same topic to identify overall patterns.

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in a natural setting without interfering or manipulating the environment.

hypothesis

a testable and falsifiable prediction about the relationship between variables.

operational definition

a statement of the exact procedures and measurements used in a study to allow for replication.

independent variable

the variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher to see if it causes a change.

dependent variable

the outcome or effect that is measured in a study.

confounding variable

an unwanted outside variable that can influence results and make it difficult to determine if the independent variable caused the change.

population

the entire group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying.

sample

the specific group of individuals selected from a population to represent them in a study.

random sampling

a selection process where every member of a population has an equal chance of being chosen for a study.

convenience sampling

selecting participants based on their availability or ease of access, which can lead to sampling bias.

sampling bias

occurs when a sample does not accurately represent the characteristics of the larger population.

experimental group

the group in an experiment that receives the treatment or is exposed to the independent variable.

control group

the group that does not receive the treatment and serves as a baseline for comparison.

random assignment

the process of randomly assigning participants to either the control or experimental group to ensure groups are similar at the start.

placebo

a fake treatment with no real effect, such as a sugar pill, used to determine if results are due to the treatment or participant expectations.

placebo effect

changes in behavior or health produced by the belief that one is receiving a treatment.

single-blind study

a study where participants do not know if they are in the experimental or control group, but the researcher does.

double-blind study

a study where neither the participants nor the researchers know who is in which group, helping to prevent bias.

experimenter bias

when a researcher's expectations or beliefs unconsciously influence the outcome of a study.

social desirability bias

the tendency for participants to respond in ways they believe are socially acceptable rather than answering honestly.

quantitative measures

data involving numbers that can be measured, such as test scores or reaction times.

qualitative measures

non-numerical data involving descriptions and observations, such as open-ended interviews.

peer review

the process by which experts in a field evaluate a study's methods and conclusions before it is published.

replication

repeating a study to see if the original results can be produced again, which strengthens the findings.

directionality problem

the difficulty in correlational research of determining which variable is causing changes in the other.

third variable problem

when an unaccounted-for outside variable is actually responsible for the relationship between two studied variables.

institutional review board (irb)

a committee that evaluates research proposals to ensure they follow ethical guidelines and protect participants.

informed consent

the process of telling participants the study's purpose and risks so they can agree to participate.

informed assent

used when participants are minors to ensure they agree to participate in an age-appropriate way alongside parental consent.

confidentiality

an ethical requirement where the researcher knows the participant's identity but does not share it.

anonymity

when even the researcher does not know which data belongs to which participant.

deception

not fully disclosing the true purpose of a study to participants, used only when necessary for the research.

confederates

people who appear to be participants but are actually part of the research team playing a specific role.

debriefing

explaining the true purpose of a study and revealing any deception to participants once the research is concluded.

mean

the mathematical average of a data set, calculated by adding all values and dividing by the total count.

median

the middle value in a data set when arranged in order, which is less affected by outliers.

mode

the most frequently occurring value in a data set.

range

the difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

standard deviation

a measurement of how spread out values in a data set are from the mean.

normal curve

a symmetrical distribution where the mean, median, and mode are equal and located at the center.

positively skewed distribution

a data set where the tail extends to the right, often because a few high scores pull the mean higher than the median.

negatively skewed distribution

a data set where the tail extends to the left, often because a few low scores pull the mean lower than the median.

percentile rank

indicates the percentage of scores in a distribution that fall at or below a specific score.

regression towards the mean

the statistical tendency for extreme scores to be followed by scores that are closer to the average.

correlation coefficient

a number ranging from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between variables.

effect size

a measurement of the strength of a relationship or the magnitude of the difference between conditions.

statistical significance

indicates a low probability (p-value ≤ 0.05) that the results of a study occurred by random chance.

defensible claim

a statement or argument supported by logical reasoning and scientifically derived evidence.

what does the biological perspective focus on in psychology?

the biological perspective focuses on how the body's physical structures and chemicals, such as brain structures, neurotransmitters, and genetics, influence behavior and mental processes.

how does the behavioral perspective explain human actions?

the behavioral perspective emphasizes how the environment shapes observable behavior through learning, specifically through reinforcement and punishment.

what is the primary focus of the cognitive perspective?

the cognitive perspective focuses on mental processes like thinking, memory, attention, and decision-making, and how these internal processes influence behavior.

what is confirmation bias?

confirmation bias is the tendency to seek out information that aligns with one's existing point of view while dismissing information that challenges those beliefs.

what is hindsight bias?

hindsight bias is the tendency to believe, after an outcome has already occurred, that one could have predicted or anticipated that outcome.

what is the difference between an experimental and a non-experimental study?

in an experimental study, researchers manipulate at least one independent variable and use random assignment to determine cause and effect, while non-experimental studies like case studies or naturalistic observations do not involve manipulation or random assignment.

what are the benefits and drawbacks of a case study?

case studies provide incredibly detailed information about a specific individual or group, but the findings cannot be generalized to the broader population because they focus on only one specific case.

what is an operational definition and why is it important?

an operational definition outlines the exact procedures and measurements used in a study, which is crucial because it allows other researchers to replicate the research.

how do you distinguish between an independent variable and a dependent variable?

the independent variable is the cause that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher, while the dependent variable is the outcome or effect that is measured.

what is the difference between a population and a sample?

the population is the entire group the researcher is interested in studying, whereas the sample is the specific group selected from that population to participate in the research.

how does random sampling differ from random assignment?

random sampling gives every member of a population an equal chance of being chosen for a study to ensure a representative sample, while random assignment is the process of placing chosen participants into either the control or experimental group by chance to ensure the groups are similar at the start.

what is a double-blind study and why is it used?

in a double-blind study, neither the participants nor the researchers know who is in the experimental or control group, which helps prevent both participant expectations and experimenter bias from affecting the results.

what is the role of an institutional review board (irb)?

the irb evaluates research proposals involving human or animal participants to ensure they follow ethical guidelines and that participants are protected from harm.

what are the requirements for informed consent and debriefing?

informed consent requires that participants be told the purpose and risks of a study before agreeing to join, and debriefing requires researchers to explain the true purpose and reveal any deception once the study is finished.

which measure of central tendency is most affected by outliers?

the mean is heavily influenced by outliers or extreme values, whereas the median is less affected and often provides a better measurement of the center in skewed data sets.

what characterizes a normal curve in statistics?

a normal curve is a symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution where the mean, median, and mode are all equal and located at the center.

what is the difference between a positive skew and a negative skew?

a positively skewed distribution has a tail that extends to the right because a few high scores pull the mean higher, while a negatively skewed distribution has a tail that extends to the left because a few low scores pull the mean lower.

what does a correlation coefficient indicate?

a correlation coefficient ranges from -1 to +1 and indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables, but it does not prove causation.

when are research results considered statistically significant?

results are statistically significant when the p-value is less than or equal to 0.05, meaning there is a low probability that the findings occurred by random chance alone.

what are the necessary components of a defensible claim in psychological research?

a defensible claim must be a clear statement or position that is supported by logical reasoning and scientifically derived evidence rather than just opinion.

central nervous system

the part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord that integrates information from different body systems.

peripheral nervous system

a network of nerves branching off the brain and spine that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

afferent neurons

also known as sensory neurons, these send signals from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.

efferent neurons

also known as motor neurons, these send signals from the central nervous system to the peripheral nervous system.

somatic nervous system

a division of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary skeletal muscle movements and processes the five senses.

autonomic nervous system

a division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary activities like heart rate, breathing, and digestion.

sympathetic division

the part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the fight-or-flight response, which mobilizes the body for action.

parasympathetic division

the part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for rest and digest functions, slowing heart rate and storing energy.

homeostasis

a state of internal stability and balance maintained by the autonomic nervous system.

what are the two main components of the central nervous system?

the central nervous system is composed of the brain and the spinal cord.

what is a helpful mnemonic for remembering the difference between afferent and efferent neurons?

remember that afferent neurons approach the brain and efferent neurons exit the brain.

what activities are controlled by the somatic nervous system?

the somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements, such as biking or playing video games, and processes the five senses.

how does the sympathetic nervous system react during an emergency?

it increases heart rate, dilates the eyes, and slows digestion to redirect energy to where it is needed.

what is the primary goal of the parasympathetic nervous system?

its goal is to help the body rest, digest, and save or store energy.

neurons

the basic functional unit of the nervous system that communicates using electrical impulses and chemical signals.

glial cells

cells that provide support, insulation, and nutrients for neurons while removing waste products.