AQA psychololgy: attachment
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118 Terms
Reciprocity?
An interaction between an infant and a caregiver where 1 responds to another. They take turns and this interaction can be initiated by either participant.
Interactional Synchrony?
Mother and infant reflect both the actions and emotions of the other and do this in a co-ordinated way.
What is an attachment?
A close 2-way emotional bond between 2 individuals where each individual sees the other as essential for their own emotional security. It endures over time and serves to protect the infant.
How can we recognise attachment?
When people display:
Proximity.
Separation distress.
Secure-base behaviour.
Pleasure on reunion.
Stranger fear.
What is proximity?
When people try to stay physically close to those they are attached to.
What is separation distress?
When people are anxious/distressed when an attachment figure leaves their presence.
What is secure-base behaviour?
Even when we are independent of our attachment figures we tend to make regular contact with them and treat them as a base from which we explore.
What is a caregiver?
Any person who provides care for a child.
What is an infant?
Usually taken to refer to a child between 0-2 years old.
What is a 'caregiver-infant interaction'?
Refers to the communication between a caregiver and infant. It is believed that these interactions have important functions for the child's social development and forms the basis of the attachment between the 2. The more responsive or sensitive they are to each others signals the deeper the bond.
According to Feldman and Eidelman (2007)
how often do mothers pick up on and respond to infant alertness?
According to Feldman (2007)
what happens at around 3 months old?
What are alert phases?
Where an infant signals that they are ready for interaction. As time goes on they tend to become more frequent and involve close attention to each others verbal signs and facial expressions.
Why is reciprocity important?
It precursors later communications and the sensitivity lays the foundations of later attachment.
How is reciprocity different from interactional synchrony?
In interactional synchrony the responses are the same/similar and at the same time
Meltzoff and Moore (1977)?
Observed interactional synchrony in infants as young as 2 weeks.
Adult displayed 1 of 3 gestures or facial expressions.
The infants response was filmed and shown to an independent observer who identified the gesture/expression. (usually correct).
Shows interactional synchrony.
Also done on 3 day old that suggests it's innate.
Isabella et al (1989)?
Observed 30 mothers and infants and assessed: a) Degree of synchrony. b) Quality of mother-infant attachment.
They found high levels synchrony associated with better quality attachments.
Evaluate caregiver-infant interactions.
S - No demand characteristics from the infants and easy to control variables. S - Evidence - Isabella et al (1989). W - Socially sensitive. W - The research doesn't tell us how or why it happens
What is meant by 'primary attachment figure'?
It's the first person an infant attaches to.
What is meant by 'secondary attachment figure'?
It's everyone else an infant attaches to
How do you become an attachment figure?
It isn't about how much time you spend with them
Why might the mother and father roles be different?
Biology: Female hormones
Grossman (2002)?
Longitudinal study on how parent-infant attachment effected attachment into teens. Found: a) Quality of infant ATTACHMENT to mothers (not fathers) related to teens attachment b) Quality of fathers PLAY did relate to attachment in adolescents.
What is the role of the mother?
To be nurturing and comforting.
What is the role of the father?
To excite children
Field (1978)?
Filmed 4-month old babies in face-to-face interactions with:
Primary caregiver mums (P.C.M).
Secondary caregiver fathers (S.C.F).
Primary caregiver fathers (P.C.F). The P.C.F's
Evaluate the role of the father.
W - Socially sensitive - suggests women shouldn't work. W - Children with no dad end to be no different which questions the importance of their role. W - Does gender play a role on who an infant attaches to? Freeman et al (2010) found male children are more likely to form a primary attachment with their fathers.
Stages of attachment?
Many developmental theories identify a sequence of qualitatively different behaviours linked to specific ages. In stages of attachment some characteristics of the infant's behaviour towards others change as the infant gets older.
Multiple attachments?
Attachments to two or more people. Most babies appear to develop multiple attachments once they have formed one true attachment to a main carer.
What was the Aim of Schaffer and Emerson's study?
To see what age attachments develop
Schaffer and Emerson (1964)?
60 Glasgow
What were the findings of Schaffer and Emerson's study (1964)?
1st attachment was formed between 25-32 weeks by 50% of infants.
65% of infants primary attachment was with their mums.
By 40 weeks 80% had a specific attachment and almost 30% had multiple attachments.
By 18 months 75% had an attachment with their fathers.
What are Schaffer and Emerson's stages of attachment?
Asocial stage.
Indiscriminate attachment.
Specific attachment.
Multiple attachments.
What and when is the asocial stage of attachment?
1st few weeks
Behaviour to humans and non-humans is quite similar.
Some preference for familiar adults.
Prefer humans to being alone.
What and when is the indiscriminate attachment stage?
2-7 months.
Accept comfort from any adult.
Prefer people to objects.
Smile at anyone.
Prefer faces to non-faces.
Prefer familiar individuals.
What and when is the specific attachment?
Around 7 months.
Show stranger anxiety.
Show separation anxiety.
Have a primary attachment to 1 particular individual.
Use familiar adults as a secure base.
Joy on reunion.
What and when is the multiple attachment stage?
Shortly after stage 3.
Form secondary attachments with familiar adults with whom they spend time.
Evaluate Schaffer and Emerson (1964).
W - Longitudinal studies take time. W - Not generalisable for social class
Evaluate the stages of attachment.
W - Hard to study the asocial stage as babies this young are fairly immobile. W - Separation distress doesn't mean an attachment has formed so we cant use it to measure attachments. W - In collectivist cultures families/communities work together to raise children so multiple attachments are formed from the outset
Animal studies?
Studies carried out on non-human animal species rather than on humans
Why might animal studies be used for practical reasons?
Because animals breed faster and researchers are interested in seeing results across more than 1 generation.
What is imprinting?
An innate readiness to acquire certain behaviours during a critical or sensitive period of attachment.
Lorenz's research?
Randomly divided a clutch of goose eggs.
1/2 were hatched with their mother in their natural environment.
The other 1/2 hatched in an incubator
What is a critical period?
The time within which an attachment must form if it is to form at all. Bowlby suggested that in humans it is around 2 years.
What did Lorenz suggest about sexual imprinting?
Birds/other animals have an adult mate preference for whichever species the 1st imprint on.
Lorenz - case study (1952)?
A peacock had been reared in the reptile house of a zoo.
So the 1st moving object the peacock saw was a giant tortoise.
As a result when the peacock was an adult it only displayed sexual advances towards giant tortoises.
What is sexual imprinting?
Acquiring a template of the characteristics of a desirable mate based on what species they originally imprinted on.
Harlow's study (1959) - procedure only?
Reared 16 infant rhesus monkeys and studied them for 165 days.
For 1/2 of the monkeys a milk dispenser was placed on a wire monkey and another cloth monkey was present.
For the other 1/2 the milk was on the cloth monkey and the wire 1 had nothing.
They then measured how much time was spent on each monkey and observed what happened when they scared the monkeys with a loud mechanical teddy bear.
What were the findings of Harlow's study (1959)?
All the monkeys cuddled and spent the most time with the cloth monkey
What did Harlow conclude from his study (1959)?
Infants develop an attachment to the person offering contact comfort and not just food.
The monkeys had a critical period of 90 days
What were the long-lasting effects on the maternally deprived monkeys in Harlow's study (1959)?
They developed abnormally and were socially abnormal (more aggressive
Guiton et al (1966)?
Research found that chickens who imprinted on washing up gloves would try and mate with them as adults before realising they preferred mating with other chickens.
Evaluate Lorenz's research?
W - Guiton et al shows that the effects may not be permanent. W - Humans are different to animals (they show more emotions and can form attachments at any time).
Evaluate Harlow's study.
S - Helpful for learning about good parenting
Learning Theory?
A set of theories from the behaviourist approach to psychology
Who proposed that caregiver-infant attachment can be explained by learning theory?
John Dollard and Neal Miller (1950).
Why is Dollard and Millers explanation of attachment often called the 'cupboard love' approach?
Because it emphasis's the importance of the caregiver as a provider of food (children learn to love who feeds them).
What is classical conditioning?
Learning to associate 2 stimuli together so that we begin to respond to 1 in the same way that we already respond to the other.
Apply classical conditioning to attachment.
see photo.
What is operant conditioning?
Learning whether or not to repeat behavior depending on its consequences.
Apply operant conditioning to attachment.
When a baby cries it receives comfort from a caregiver
Evaluate learning theory as an explanation of attachment.
W - Lots of animal studies have shown that we don't attach just to who feeds us. ( E.G. Lorenz or Harlow). W - Research has show that there are other factors needed to form attachments like reciprocity and interactional synchrony (E.G. Isabella et al). W - In Schaffer and Emerson's study babies tended to develop a primary attachment to their biological mothers even though other carers did most of the feeding.
Monotropic?
A term sometimes used to describe Bowlby's theory. The mono means 'one' and indicates that one particular attachment is different from all others and of central importance to the child's development.
Critical period?
This refers to the time within which an attachment must form if its to form at all. Lorenz and Harlow noted that attachment in birds and monkeys had critical periods. Bowlby extended the idea to humans
Internal working model?
The mental representations we all carry with us of our attachment to our primary caregiver. They are important in effecting our future relationships because they carry our perception of what relationships are like.
Why did Bowlby reject learning theory?
Because if it was true an infant of a year or 2 should take readily to whomever feeds him
What was Bowlby's evolutionary explanation of Attachment?
That attachment was an innate system that gave a survival advantage.
Imprinting and attachment evolved because they ensure that young animals stay close to their caregivers and this protects them from hazards.
Why is Bowlby's theory described as monotropic?
Because he placed great emphasis on a child's attachment to 1 particular caregiver (mono) and he believed that the child's attachment to this 1 caregiver is different and more important than the others.
What 2 principles did Bowlby use to clarify his belief that the more time a baby spent with the primary attachment figure the better?
The law of continuity.
The law of accumulated separation.
What does the law of continuity state?
The more constant and predictable a child's care
What does the law of accumulated separation state?
The effects of every separation from the mother add up and the safest dose is therefore a zero dose.
What are social releasers?
An innate set of 'cute' behaviours like smiling
When did Bowlby think an infants critical period is?
Around 2 years.
What are the 6 key words used for Bowlby's theory?
Adaptive.
Social releasers.
Critical period.
Monotropy.
Internal working model.
Continuity hypothesis.
i.e. A Snap Chat Makes Images Crap.
Brazleton et al (1975)?
Instructed primary attachment figures to ignore the infants signals (social releasers).
At 1st they showed distress but then some responded by curling up and lying motionless.
Bailey et al (2007)?
They assessed 99 babies and their mothers through interviews and observations.
It was found that mothers who reported having poor attachments with their own mothers
Evaluate Bowlby's theory of attachment.
W - He thought infants formed 1 specific P.A.F. and then later multiple attachments could form. but in Schaffer and Emerson's study they found that some babies formed multiple attachments at the same time. S - Evidence that cute behaviour is intended for social interaction (e.g. Brazleton et al). S - Bailey et al (internal working models). W - Socially sensitive for working mothers.
Strange situation?
A controlled observation designed to test attachment security. Infants are assessed on their response to playing in 7 situations.
secure attachment?
Generally thought of as the most desirable attachment type
Insecure-avoidant attachment?
An attachment type characterised by low anxiety but weak attachment. In the Strange Situation this is shown by low stranger and separation anxiety and little response to reunion - an avoidance of the caregiver.
Insecure-resistant attachment?
An attachment type characterised by strong attachment and high anxiety. In the strange situation this is shown by high levels of stranger and separation anxiety and by resistance to be comforted at reunion.
What type of procedure was Ainsworth's strange situation?
Controlled observation.
In Ainsworth's strange situation (1969)
what behaviours were used to judge attachment?
Ainsworth's strange situation (1969) - procedure?
Child is encouraged to explore.
A stranger enters and tries to interact.
The caregiver leaves the stranger and child.
The caregiver returns and stranger leaves.
The caregiver leaves the child alone.
The stranger returns.
The caregiver returns and is reunited with the child.
EACH EPISODE LASTS 3 MINUTES.
Evaluate Ainsworth's Strange Situation.
S - Supporting validity: Attachment types are strongly predictive of later development. (Avoidant = bullied
Cultural variations?
'Culture' refers to the norms and values that exist within any group of people. Cultural variations then are the differences in norms and values that exist between people in different groups. In attachment research we are concerned with the differences in the proportion of children of different attachment types.
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988)?
Aim: To look at the different proportions of attachment types in different cultures. Meta-analysis of 32 studies across 8 different countries
Simonella et al (2014)?
Italy strange situation. 76 12 month olds . 50% secure
Jin et al (2012)?
Strange situation in Korean. Insecure and secure were similar
Evaluate cultural variations in attachment.
S - By combining results from different countries you end up with a very large sample size
Maternal deprivation?
The emotional and intellectual consequences of separation between a child and his/her mother or mother substitute. Bowlby proposed that continuous care from a mother is essential for normal psychological development
Who came up with the theory of maternal deprivation?
Bowlby.
What is the difference between separation and deprivation?
Separation means the child is not in the presence of the primary attachment figure. this only is an issue if the child loses an element of care (they are deprived).
Brief separations are not an issue for development
What did Bowlby think the critical period was for psychological development?
30 months
How does maternal deprivation effect a child's intellectual development?
Abnormally low IQ. This is shown by Goldfarb (1947).
Williams Goldfarb (1955)?
He followed up on 30
How does maternal deprivation effect a child's emotional development?
Bowlby suggested that maternal deprivation can cause affectionless psychopathy. This is the inability to experience guilt or strong emotion for others. It prevents the person developing normal relationships and is associated with criminality.
Bowlby's 44 thieves study?
Aim: To investigate links between affectionless psychopathy and maternal deprivation. Sample: 88 total
Hilda Lewis (1954)
Replicated the 44 thieves study with 500 young people.
The results suggested maternal deprivation did NOT predict criminality or difficulty forming close relationships.
Jarmila Koluchova (1976)?
Reported a case where 2 twin boys were isolated (kept in a closet by their step-mother) from the age of 18 months till 7 years old.
Afterwards they were looked after by 2 loving parents and appeared to fully recover.
This shows that Bowlby's period is sensitive but not critical.