Genheimer AP Psychology 2025

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.

Hindsight Bias

The inclination to see events as having been predictable after they have already occurred.

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias characterized by an overestimation of one's own abilities, knowledge, or predictions.

Causation

Statement of direct cause and effect from the independent variable to the dependent variable. Only possible with a randomly assigned, controlled experiment (not correlation or other study type)

Non-Experimental Study

A type of research that does not involve manipulation of variables and instead observes them as they naturally occur.

Correlation

A statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables change together.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to identify patterns or overall effects.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated or controlled in an experiment to test its effects on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured in an experiment to assess the effect of the independent variable.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

Falsifiable Hypothesis

A hypothesis that can be proven false through evidence or experimentation.

Operational Definition

A clear and precise definition of a variable that specifies how it will be measured or manipulated.

Replication

The process of repeating a study to see if the same results can be obtained.

Confounding Variable

An unintended variable that systematically varies with your independent variable, which can influence the effect of on the dependent variable

Sampling Bias

A bias that occurs when the sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn.

Generalizability

the extent to which the findings from one group (or sample) can be generalized or applied to other groups (or populations)

Placebo

A condition with no therapeutic value that still has an effect due to a subject's beliefs

Single Blind

An experimental design in which the participants do not know whether they are receiving the treatment or a placebo.

Double Blind

An experimental design in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving the treatment or placebo.

Experimenter Bias

A cognitive bias that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Mean

The average value of a set of numbers, calculated by dividing the sum of the values by the number of values. Can be negatively affected by outliers.

Median

The middle value in a list of numbers, which separates the higher half from the lower half. Useful when there are extreme outliers.

Mode

The value that appears most frequently in a data set.

Standard Deviation

a measure of variability that describes an average distance of every score from the mean

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shape that describes the regular distribution of individual data points around an entire data set.

Positive Skew

A distribution where most values are concentrated on the left (low numbers), with a long tail extending to the right (high numbers)

Negative Skew

A distribution where most values are concentrated on the right (high numbers), with a long tail extending to the left (low numbers)

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution with two different modes or peaks.

Regression to the Mean

The phenomenon where extreme values tend to be closer to the average on subsequent measurements.

Correlation Problems

Issues that arise in interpreting correlation, such as the third variable problem and directionality problem.

Third Variable Problem

A situation in which a third variable influences both the independent and dependent variables, creating a false impression of correlation.

Directionality Problem

The issue of not being able to determine which variable is the cause and which is the effect in a correlational study.

Self-Report Bias

A bias that occurs when individuals provide inaccurate or misleading information about themselves.

Experimental Ethics - Institutional Review Boards

Committees that review research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met and participants are protected.

Informed Consent

The process of providing potential research participants with information about a study so they can make an informed decision about their participation.

Confidentiality / Anonymous

The ethical principle of keeping participants' information private and not disclosing their identities.

Deception

The act of misleading participants about the true nature of a study, often used to prevent bias.

Debriefing

The process of informing participants about the true purpose of a study after their participation.

Nature vs Nurture

Discussion on the relative contributions of genetics and environment to human development.

Central Nervous System

Brain and spinal cord; controls body functions.

Peripheral Nervous System

A division of the nervous system consisting of all nerves that are not part of the brain or spinal cord.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary muscle movements.

Autonomic Nervous System

Regulates involuntary bodily functions.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Arouses body (e.g. increase heart rate, perspiration, dilated pupils); "fight or flight"

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms body; promotes rest and digestion.

Neurons

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Glial Cells

Supportive cells in the nervous system that assist neurons.

Sensory Neurons

Transmit sensory information to the brain.

Motor Neurons

Send signals from brain to muscles.

Interneurons

Connect sensory and motor neurons. (located in the brain and spinal cord)

Reflex Arc

A relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement.

Action Potential

Electrical impulse traveling down a neuron.

All-or-nothing Principle

Neuron fires completely or not at all.

Depolarization

Initial increase in electrical charge of a neuron immediately after an action potential

Refractory Period

Time after an action potential when neuron cannot start a new action potential

Resting Potential

the state of the neuron when not firing an action potential

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Threshold

Minimum stimulus required to trigger action potential.

Excitatory Neurotransmitter

A neurotransmitter which increases the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitter

A neurotransmitter which decreases the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter linked to pleasure and reward.

Serotonin

Regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.

Norepinephrine

Involved in arousal and alertness.

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.

GABA

Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Endorphins

Natural painkillers; promote feelings of pleasure.

Substance P

Neurotransmitter involved in pain perception.

Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter for muscle action and memory.

Antagonist

Blocks neurotransmitter action at receptor sites.

Agonist

Mimics and enhances neurotransmitter action at receptor sites.

Reuptake Inhibitor

Prevents reabsorption of neurotransmitters - allowing them to build up in the synapse

Stimulant

Increases neural activity and energy levels.

Depressant

Reduces neural activity; calms body functions.

Hallucinogen

Alters perception and can induce hallucinations.

Opioid

Pain-relieving substances that can cause addiction.

Tolerance

Reduced response to a drug after repeated use.

Addiction

Inability to stop a behavior or drug despite negative consequences.

Withdrawal

Negative symptoms experienced after stopping drug use.

Brain Stem

Controls basic life functions - connects spinal cord to brain

Medulla

Regulates vital functions like heartbeat and breathing.

Reticular Formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and plays an important role in controlling arousal

Cerebellum

Coordinates voluntary movements and balance.

Limbic System

neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebrum; associated with emotions and drives.

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Hypothalamus

A region of the brain that regulates various bodily functions, including hunger and thirst.

Lateral Hypothalamus

Stimulates hunger and eating behaviors.

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

Signals fullness and stops eating.

Pituitary Gland

Master gland; regulates hormone release.

Hippocampus

Part of the limbic system; Critical for forming new memories.

Amygdala

Part of the limbic system; Processes emotions, especially fear and pleasure.

Cerebrum

Largest brain region; responsible for higher functions.

Corpus Callosum

Connects left and right brain hemispheres.

Brain Lobes

Four regions of the brain with specific functions.

Frontal Lobe

Involved in reasoning, planning, and movement.

Parietal Lobe

Processes sensory information; spatial awareness.

Temporal Lobe

Involved in auditory processing and memory.

Occipital Lobe

Processes visual information from the eyes.

Wernicke's Area

Language comprehension region in the brain.

Broca's Area

Language production region in the brain.