Spring Final Exam Study Guide Flashcards

Vocabulary-style flashcards covering the major concepts from the ECHS Spring Final exam study guide, including biology, biochemistry, genetics, evolution, and ecology.

Scientific Method

A systematic process involving observation, question, hypothesis, experiment, analysis, and conclusion.

Theory of Spontaneous Generation

The obsolete belief that living organisms can emerge suddenly and spontaneously from non-living matter.

Adhesion

The attraction between water molecules and different substances.

Cohesion

The attraction between water molecules and other water molecules.

Carbohydrate

An organic compound made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that provides primary energy for cells and structural support.

Monosaccharide

The monomer or base unit of a carbohydrate.

Disaccharide

A sugar formed when two monosaccharides are chemically bonded together.

Glycogen

The storage form of glucose in the human body.

Protein

A large complex biological molecule made up of long chains of amino acids used for structure, transport, defense, and communication.

Amino acid

The monomer or base unit of a protein.

Primary Structure

The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

Secondary Structure

The structural level of a protein characterized by alpha helices and beta-pleated sheets.

Enzyme

A biological catalyst, usually a protein, that speeds up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy without being consumed.

Nucleic Acid

A macromolecule that stores and transmits genetic information.

Nucleotide

The monomer of a nucleic acid, consisting of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

Lipid

A diverse group of organic compounds insoluble in water, including fats, oils, waxes, and steroids, used for long-term energy storage.

HDL

The type of cholesterol molecule that is considered good for the body.

Liver

The organ that helps to regulate the amount of fat in our body.

Macromolecule Energy Values

Proteins and Carbohydrates provide $4$ calories per gram, while Lipids provide $9$ calories per gram.

Cell Theory

The theory stating all living things are composed of one or more cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Eukaryotic Cell

A cell that contains a defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Prokaryotic Cell

A simpler, typically smaller cell that lacks a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Peroxisome

A small, membrane-bound organelle that breaks down fatty acids and amino acids through oxidation.

Glyoxysome

The organelle used to help seed germination in plants.

Vacuole

An organelle responsible for holding nutrients, water, and waste products.

Gas Vacuoles

Organelles involved in maintaining buoyancy.

Ribosome

A complex molecule made of ribosomal RNA and proteins that serves as the site of protein synthesis.

Golgi Apparatus

The organelle involved in sorting, modification, and transporting of proteins.

Mitochondria

The 'powerhouse of the cell,' a double membrane-bound organelle that facilitates energy production.

Chloroplast

An organelle containing chlorophyll found in plants and algae that captures light energy to produce food through photosynthesis.

Cell Membrane

A flexible, semi-permeable barrier that regulates what enters and leaves the cell.

Cytoskeleton

A network providing structural support and cell motility.

Cell Wall

A rigid, external structure found outside the cell membrane in plants and some other organisms.

Autotroph

An organism that produces its own food using light, such as plants or algae.

Heterotroph

An organism that cannot produce its own food and must consume plants or animals, such as humans or fungi.

Photosynthesis Reactants and Products

Reactants: $6CO_2 + 6H_2O + \text{light energy}$; Products: $C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2$.

C4 Pathway

An alternative pathway where carbon is fixed into a four-carbon compound in specialized cells to keep $CO_2$ levels high.

CAM

An alternative pathway where plants open stomata at night to take in $CO_2$ and store it as organic acids.

Aerobic Respiration Stages

Glycolysis (cytoplasm), The Krebs Cycle (mitochondrial matrix), and Electron Transport Chain (inner mitochondrial membrane).

Electron Transport Chain

The stage of cellular respiration that generates the most ATP.

Fermentation

An anaerobic process producing only $2$ ATP per glucose, existing in two types: lactic acid and alcoholic.

ATP Synthase

The enzyme involved in the production of ATP in both photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

Asexual Reproduction

Reproduction where a single parent produces genetically identical offspring.

Sexual Reproduction

Reproduction where two parents contribute genetic information to produce unique offspring via the union of gametes.

Diploid

Cells containing two complete sets of chromosomes ($46$ in humans).

Haploid

Cells containing only one set of chromosomes ($23$ in humans), such as gametes.

Interphase Stages

G1 (growth and organelle copying), S (DNA synthesis), and G2 (further growth and protein synthesis).

Mitosis

Cell division resulting in two genetically identical diploid daughter cells.

Mitosis Phases

Prophase (envelope breaks down), Metaphase (chromosomes line up), Anaphase (chromatids pull apart), Telophase (new envelopes form).

Meiosis

Specialized cell division resulting in four genetically unique haploid daughter cells.

Nondisjunction

The failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly, resulting in gametes with abnormal chromosome numbers.

Metamorphosis

A conspicuous body structure change after birth/hatching; can be complete (four stages) or incomplete (three stages).

DNA Replication

The process in the nucleus by which a DNA molecule is copied to produce two identical DNA molecules.

Transcription

The process in the nucleus where a segment of DNA is copied into mRNA.

Translation

The process in the cytoplasm where a ribosome decodes mRNA to assemble a sequence of amino acids into a protein.

Genes

Instructions to make proteins that determine different traits.

Alleles

Different versions or variations of the same gene.

Homozygous

Having two identical alleles for a trait (e.g., AA or aa).

Heterozygous

Having two different alleles for a trait (e.g., Aa).

Autosome

Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome ($44$ or $22$ pairs in humans).

Sex Chromosomes

Chromosomes involved in determining sex; males are XY and females are XX.

Genetic Engineering

Inserting a specific gene from one organism into the genome of another to provide a desirable new trait.

PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)

A technique used to quickly and accurately amplify a specific segment of DNA.

Evolution

The process by which populations change over generations through variations in genetic makeup.

Natural Selection

Theory proposed by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace stating organisms with best-suited traits are more likely to survive and reproduce.

Vestigial Structure

A structure that has lost all or most of its original function through evolution.

Homologous Structure

Organs or skeletal elements that suggest a connection to a common ancestor.

Population Bottleneck

An event that drastically reduces population size and genetic diversity.

Founder Effect

Genetic drift occurring when a small group establishes a new colony away from a larger population.

Taxonomic Ranks

The $8$ taxa: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.

Binomial Nomenclature

A formal two-part system for naming species.

Domains

Archaea (extreme environment prokaryotes), Bacteria (prokaryotes), and Eukarya (complex cells with nuclei).

Cambrian Explosion

A short evolutionary period when most major animal phyla first appeared in the fossil record.

Homo sapiens Migration

Humans originated in Africa and began migrating approximately $60,000$ to $100,000$ years ago.

Ardipithecus

A genus of early hominins living in Africa approximately $4.4$ to $5.6$ million years ago.

Trophic Levels

Producers make food; Consumers eat others; Herbivores eat plants; Carnivores eat meat; Omnivores eat both.

10% Rule

In an ecosystem, only $10\%$ of energy is passed to the next trophic level, with $90\%$ lost as heat.

Biological Magnification

The increase in toxin concentration as it moves up the food chain to apex predators.

Phosphorus Cycle

A geological cycle that does not involve the atmosphere.

Terrestrial Biomes

The $8$ biomes: Tropical Rainforest, Savanna, Desert, Chaparral, Temperate Grassland, Temperate Deciduous Forest, Boreal Forest, and Tundra.

Keystone Species

A species that has a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to its abundance.

Symbiotic Relationships

Mutualism (both benefit), Commensalism (one benefits, one unaffected), Parasitism (one benefits, one harmed).

Logistic Growth

An S-shaped curve where growth rate decreases as population approaches carrying capacity.

Anthropocene

The proposed geological epoch dating from the commencement of significant human impact on Earth's ecosystems.