BIO 111 Unit 1

Heterotroph

An organism that obtains energy by eating food

Energy

The ability to do work

Solar Energy

Energy in the form of light from the sun

Mechanical Energy

Includes Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy

Kinetic Energy

Energy of movement

Potential Energy

Stored Energy

Chemical Energy

Energy stored in chemical bonds

First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can change forms

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Energy conversions are inefficient and some energy will always be lost

Third Law of Thermodynamics

Energy flows from higher forms to lower forms

How do cells fuel chemical reactions?

Breaking of a phosphate group that releases energy between the bonds

ATP

primary energy carrier found in all living cells to fuel metabolic processes

Hydroxyl

Found in alcohols and sugars

Carboxyl

Found in amino acids, fatty acids

Amino

Found in amino acids, protein

Sulfhydryl

Found in amino acid, cysteine, proteins

Phosphate

Found in ATP and nucleic acids

Carbohydrates

Monomers: Monosaccharides

Polymers: Polysaccharides

Proteins

Monomers: Amino Acids

Polymers: Polypeptides

Nucleic Acids

Monomers: Nucleotides

Polymers: DNA, RNA

Fats

Monomers: Glycerol, Fatty Acids

Polymers: Triglycerides

Dehydration Synthesis

Joining monomers to form a polymer by removing a water molecule

Hydrolysis

Breaking polymers down into monomers by adding a water molecule

Carbohydrates Function

Quickly accessed as a preferred energy source; can form long polymers

Lipids

Non-polar molecules that do not dissolve in water; include fats, sterols, and phospholipids

Fat Structure

Head of Glycerol, Tails of Fatty Acids

Sterols

Carbon arranged in four rings instead of chains; Steroid Hormones

Phospholipids

Compose the membrane of all living cells

Protein Structure

Amino group and carboxyl group bound to a chain of amino acids; function determined by order, identity and number of amino acids

Protein Function

Structure, Protection, Regulation, Contraction, Transportion

Mechanical Digestion

Physically breaking food down to increase its surface area; Mouth and stomach

Chemical Digestion

Break down nutrient molecules using enzymes to harvest energy; small intestine

Mouth

breaks up food by mechanical and chemical digestion

Espophagus

Transports food to stomach

Stomach

mechanical mixing of food

Small intestine

major organ of digestion and absorption

Large intestine

eliminates indigestible materials, reabsorbs water

Salivary glands

Lubricates food and provides enzymes

Liver

produces bile, processes and stores nutrients

Pancreas

produces digestive enzymes for the small intestine, regulates blood sugar levels

Gallbladder

stores bile

Small Intestine

Contains folds and villi which increase the surface area to maximize nutrient absorption

Capillaries

Inside of villi; connect small intestine to circulatory system

Lacteals

Inside villi; transport fat-soluble molecules to lymphatic system

Enzymes

Metabolic catalyst that speed up chemical reactions or allow them to occur at all

Activation Energy

The amount of energy required to make a chemical reaction occur

Feedback Inhibition

Produce of the enzyme pathway tells enzyme to stop working

Digestive Enzymes

Break down carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids into molecules that can move into circulatory or lymphatic system

Amylases

Break down carbohydrates; sends simple sugars to blood steam

Peptidases

Break down proteins; send amino acids to blood stream

Lipases

Break down fats; send simple fats to lymphatic system

Cells

The smallest unit that still displays all the properties of life

Prokaryotic Cells

Simple, single-celled organism; lacks a nucleus

Eukaryotic Cells

Nucleus and membrane bound organelles

Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell; harvests energy to be used for cellular function

Symbiosis

Individuals of two different species live in physical contact, often for mutual benefit

Endosymbiosis

Occurs when an individual of one species lives inside an individual of another species

Endosymbiosis

Occurs when an individual of one species lives inside an individual of another species

Endosymbiosis Hypothesis

Mitochondria originated from bacterial cell that took up residence inside another cell

Plasma Membrane

Defines the boundary of the cell; made of a phospholipid bilayer

Fluid-Mosaic Model

Describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of components that can flow and change position while maintaining the basic integrity of the membrane

Passive Transport

No energy required; Diffusion and Osmosis

Active Transport

Movement of molecules across the plasma membrane where energy is required; molecules pumped against their chemical gradients

Bulk Transport

Special vesicles used to move large quantities at the same time

Concentration Gradient

Molecules will move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration until the concentrations are the same; happens without energy

Simple Diffusion

Small molecules that carry no charge can pass directly through the membrane

Facilitated Diffusion

Large of charged molecules must pass through a channel or carrier molecule to get across the plasma membrane

Osmosis

passive transport of water; diffuses across a membrane via channel molecule to equalize the concentration of solute inside and outside the cell

Isotonic Solution

Solute concentrations and water movement are balanced

Hypertonic Solution

Solute concentrations are higher in the extracellular fluid; water diffuses out of cells

Hypotonic Solution

Solute concentrations are lower in the extracellular fluid; water diffuses into cells

Sodium-Potassium Pump

Move 3 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions into the cell powered by ATP

Endocytosis

Moving large particles into cell

Exocytosis

Moving large particles out of cell

Three Steps of Cellular Respiration

Glycolysis, Citric Acid Cycle, Electron Transport Chain

Cellular Respiration

Converts sugar molecules to ATP

Glycolysis

Breaks Glucose down into two pyruvate molecules; Energy stored in ATP and electrons stored in NADH; Uses 2 ATP, results in 4 ATP (2 Net ATP) and 2 NADH

Acetyl-CoA Production

Forms CO2 by breaking down pyruvate and donating two electrons to NAD+, creating NADH; resulting molecule is called Acetyl-CoA; happens twice per original glucose molecule

Citric Acid Cycle

Series of chemical reactions that release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA; stores high-energy electrons in NADH and in FADH2

Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain

Used to harvest energy stored in electrons in NADH and FADH2; produces 36 to 38 total ATP molecules

Aerobic Respiration

Process in which cells use oxygen to break down glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids to produce energy in the form of ATP

Anaerobic Respiration

Process in which cells use something other than oxygen as the final electron acceptor; pyruvate in animals, acetaldehyde in yeast

Vitamin

Organic molecules with varying functions

Hormones

Chemicals that travel through blood and cause cellular responses in distant tissues

Vitamins as Coenzymes

Interact with enzymes to enable reactions or make interaction between enzyme and substrate more efficient

Vitamins as Signaling Molecules

Can bind to plasma membrane surface receptors

Vitamins as Antioxidants

Provide electrons to atoms that don’t have enough which prevents those atoms from harming our cells

Vitamin B12

Converts fats and proteins to useable molecule to send into cellular respiration pathways; Sources: dairy, fish, poultry

Niacin

Component of enzyme that creates NAD+; Source: poultry, beans, leafy greens and green veggies

Caffeine

Psychoactive drug that impacts mood and neurotransmitter chemistry; blocks adenosine receptors to make you feel less tired