Chapter 25: War and Revolution

After Germany’s unification, there was growing international conflict. Describe the conflict…

After Bismark reunified Germany, he wanted to isolate France from allies and create a series of alliances with Austria-Hungary and Russia, partially because they threatened his goal of peace AND they would help with French isolation.

However, after Bismarck was dismissed in 1890 by Wilhelm II, Bismarck’s alliances started decaying. Wilhelm II started being more harsh on Russia, failing to accept nonaggression pacts. As a result, Russia sided with the isolated France, and the two started becoming more and more powerful with money, arms, and diplomatic support.

After 1894, when France and Russia became military allies, what happened? (aka what formed?!)

After their treaty, the Triple Alliance of Austria, Germany, and Italy, were faced with an increasingly hostile Dual Alliance of France and Russia.

How did Great Britain respond to the Triple and Double Alliance? Particularly, what did it do with Germany?

ALSO, MENTION THE ENTENTE!

For the most part, Great Britain wasn’t in either alliance. However, it eventually hated Germany after their industrial powers grew. Since Germany was a powerful nationalist nation, GB became evermore worried, given that it was common to see German naval fleets growing in numbers. As a result, Britain improved its alliances with the US, Japan, and France (called the Anglo-French Entente of 1904).

What did _____ of Germany do in response to Britain’s closer ties with France?

Wilhelm II; He ended up declaring in 1905 that Morocco (France had colonial interests here) was an indepenent nation and demanded that Germany receive the same trading rights as France. Additionally, Wilhelm II ended up going to the nation to spread his support.

After doing this, it created the First Moroccan Crisis of 1905. It led Wilhelm II called for an international meeting. However, this only strengthened the bond between GB and France, with many MORE nations (e.g., US, Russia) viewing Germany as an international threat.

What was the Triple Entente? How was it formed?

The Triple Entente was an alliance between Britain, Russia, and France. It was formed after the worsening relations with Germany (e.g., First Moroccan Crisis of 1905) and aimed to counter-balance the Triple Alliance. Specifically, it was formed when Russia agreed to settle disputes with GB in Persia and Central Asia.

Unfortunately, the conflict in Morocco only worsened after 1905. In 1911… (also, did this worsen or help conflicts between those two big alliances?)

In 1911, French troops were sent to suppress anticolonial rebellions. In response, Germany sent a gunboat to destroy these troops. After this conflict, the Second Moroccan Crisis gave France the power to claim Morocco as a permanent colony, and gave Germany some land in the Congo.

However, this STILL worsened tensions between the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente.

How did Europe (specifically Britain) react when Germany started expanding its navy with battleships called _____?

dreadnoughts; Europe reacted in a negative way.

British leaders saw them as a military challenge that forced them to spend money on their own military improvements (and in Ireland, called the People’s Budget). Additionally, British newspaper Daily Mail informed its readers saying that Germany was preparing to destroy the British Empire.

One of the biggest reasons that war progressed was because of the ____ __ 1914. Specifically…

Mood of 1914; Specifically, this was a time where many people believed that war was manly and heroic. It wasn’t uncommon to see a male deliberately rush into war in the hopes of being able to show something for it (like losing a limb) to impress his country.

Why did political leaders favor militarism and nationalism? (think about what was happening in each nation)

It was mainly because of the conflicts that socialism and liberalism brought. In Great Britain, many social movements in Ireland led to constant distractions from the rest of Europe. In Russia, defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and the Revolution of 1905 had greatly weakened support for the tsarist regime.

Making the switch to nationalism/militarism would unify the nation. It would easily prevent these conflicts from happening again (or so they thought).

What was the last-ditch effort by the Germans in WW1? This happened in ___.

1918; The Germans launched the Spring Offensive by Ludendorff. In this offense, Germany sent troops to break through Paris. However, because his troops were exhausted and didn’t have much war-support, they lost in the Second Battle of the Marne, where 140k American soldiers suppressed them.

What did the Germans do after they lost in the ______ _____ _ _ ____? (hint: two names here)

Second Battle of the Marne; The Germans, specifically Ludendorff and Hindenburg, wanted to shift the blame on moderate politicians. Additionally, because Germany knew it lost the war, it created a new, more liberal civilian government in an effort for peace (this was after internal conflicts, which will be discussed more on another flashcard).

After Germany created this “more liberal, civilian government” what happened? (hint: bad)

The people of Germany started rising up in revolt. In November, sailors in Kiel refused to obey orders from Wilhelm II, with others in Northern Germany doing the same. The people rallied for peace in Berlin. With all of this, Wilhelm II fled to Holland and Socialist leaders in Berlin took over, turning Germany into a republic on November 9th, and accepting peace terms on the 11th.

What happened with Austria-Hungary after WW1?

The nation was in complete chaos. Following the Treaty of Versailles, Austria-Hungary was completely split apart and Poland, Czechoslovakia, Finland, the Baltic States, and Yugoslavia were formed.

The entire nation was scrambled into several new territorites, with Hungary becoming a Marxist republic, and the Serbs gaining control of the western Balkans (named Yugoslavia).

What was Germany’s revolution like? What exactly happened in it? ALso, when was this?!

Germany’s revolution took place in November 1918. Essentially, many lower-class individuals started revolting in the streets of Berlin, advocating for peace and reform. With the population, they were able to overthrow the authoritarian leaders (Wilhelm II) and create their own republic, called a Weimar Republic.

Why did Germany become a Weimar Republic? Why not an authoritarian regime or a monarchy?

The main reason was because of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), which had many supporters. Individuals in the SPD wanted democracy and civil liberties that favored the elimination of capitalism. They were also appaled by the threats of civil war, so they hoped this would work.

How was new German republic (Weimar Republic)? Did people enjoy it?

Many individuald did enjoy it for the new civil liberties and elimination of capitalism. However, the Radical Communists led by Karl Leibknecht and Rosa Luxemburg did not. They tried seizing control of the government in the Spartacist Uprising of Berlin in 1919.

Thankfully, the Social Democrats call in the Free Corps militias, who crushed the uprising and killed both Leibknecht and Luxemburg.

What did people think after the Spartacist Uprising in Berlin was crushed?

Many individuals became more mad. Other communists and radical socialists started blaming the Social Democrats for the murders of Luxemburg and Leibknecht. Additionally, the new Nazi Party despited the government from the start, saying that Germany never lost WW1, rather, they were only suppressed by socialists at home.

What happened at the Conference in 1919 with 27 nations?

They produced the Treaty of Versailles, which laid out the war-terms with Germany.

What did U.S. President _____ bring to the Conference of 1919?

Wilson; He introduced the Fourteen Point system, which called for open diplomacy, a reduction in military weapons, freedom of trade/commerce, etc. Most importantly from his Fourteen Point system was the creation of a League of Nations. This was an international body designed for peaceful resolutions to conflicts.

What were the primary nations represented at the Conference in 1919? Who wasn’t?

The “Big Three” primarily controlled it: United States, Great Britain, and France. Even though other nations attended, they weren’t really considered, like countries in the Middle East. Additionally, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia were excluded, however, their lands were still considered.

What was the biggest topic talked about by “The Big Three?” (mention each name here)

The biggest topic was Germany. Even though Wilson strongly pushed for his League of Nations, both Lloyd George of GB and Georges Clemenceau of Frane wanted to punish Germany.

Clemenceau believed that Germany should be punished for its aggression in the West, particularly for much of the conflict being on French soil. He proposed a buffer state being created between France and Germany with many reparation payments.

Lloyd supported Clemenceau. However, Wilson did not. Ultimately, the conference was deadlocked, so Clemeceau agreed to give up his idea for a buffer and in return, France could use Germany for military occupation and also gain alliances with GB and the US.

How did the Treaty of Versailles affect Germany? (What did it do?)

The Treaty started by giving Germany’s colonies in Africa and Asia to France, Britain, and Japan. Additionally, Alsace-Lorraine was given back to France.

Other than land, Germany was forced to keep its army under 100k, agree to build no more military fortifications in the Rhineland, and acept French occupation in that region. And, Germany had to accept the war guilt clause, which declared that Germany was entirely responsible for the war and thus, had to pay reparations to all civilian damages.

Why wasn’t peace ever achieved after the Conference in 1919 and the new Treaty of Versailles?

One of the biggest reasons was the creation of new nations, like Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and the Baltic States. They cut through several ethnic and cultural groups that hated each other, making it difficult to become wealthy or powerful.

Additionally, Wilson’s Fourteen Point system and League of Nations were rejected by Congress, given that it was supposed to be handled by them.

What happened in the middle east, specifically the Ottoman Empire, after World War I? (in reference to the Conference in 1919)

Both France and Britain started to dismantle the Ottoman Empire by encouraging revolts led by Arabs. In doing so, the Arabs had significantly weakened the Ottoman Empire, but France and Britain made secret agreements, saying that they would actually take control of the territory. Through the Skyes-Picot Agreement of 1916, it gave GB and France the ability to divide and rule the Ottoman lands.

What did France and Great Britain do after taking control of the Ottoman lands? What did this system INTEND to do in the eyes of everyone else?

Both nations introduced a mandate system, which allowed France to govern Lebanon, Syria, much of Turkey, and Great Britain to control Palestine, Transjordan, and Iraq.

The system INTENDED to eventually give these states independence, however, it was hardly effective. This angered many Arab nationalities!

What happened after Great Britain tried implementing Palestine?

This made the Arab nationalists incredibly mad. In the Balfour Declaration of 1917 by Arthur Balfour, he stated that Britain favored a home for the Jewish people in Palestine without discriminating other cultures. Even though this grew support from people that supported Zionism and the British war effort, the Arab nationalists grew evermore angry.

What specifically made Arab nationalists mad over the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine? And, what did they do about it?

Following the Balfour Declaration, the Arab nationalists were angry because Jewish people made 11% of the Ottoman district population, making it difficult to establish a fair majority rule.

As a result, Arab nationalists came together in Damascus to create the General Syrian Congress to call for political independence. Even though it failed, it demonstrated just how far people were willing to go.

What happened following the creation of the _______ _______ ______ in Damascus?

General Syrian Congress; The French army ended up attacking, and took control of Damascus in 1920. This caused the Arab government to flee, giving the French complete control of the area.

In Russia, party membership of the ____ grew from 50k to 240k, allowing them to gain a majority in the _____ _____.

Bolsheviks; Petrograd Soviet.

Who led the Bolsheviks? What did he do EVEN AFTER he gained military control?

It was Leon Trotsky who led the Bolsheviks. Through his efforts, Trotsky ended up convincing the Petrograd Soviet to form a military revolution committee then make him lead it. This allowed military power to be put into the hands of the Bolsheviks.

After he gained military control, he took militants from the committee to seize government buildings in the Petrograd and arrested members of the government. Then, he went to the Congress of Soviets to declare that all power belonged to the Soviets, with Lenin heading it.

Why did the Bolsheviks come to power? It’s not like one day they just woke up and wanted it. (hint: 3 reasons)

One reason was because of the failing democracy in Russia. It started to mirror anarchy and only helped people who were already in power.

Another reason was because Lenin and Trotsky believed the Bolsheviks had incredible leadership potential, which both the tsar and government lacked.

Finally, the last reason was because the Bolshevik policies appealed to the Russians. They wanted the Bolsheviks to take over because they didn’t agree with war and an authoritarian tsar anymore.

How did Lenin, and his party called the _____, keep power?

Bolsheviks; Lenin was able to keep control by simply agreeing with what was happening in the country. For example, when a peasant revolt was sweeping across Russia, he supported the demands of the peasants by giving them land reforms (something they were already doing). Additionally, when urban workers established their own committees to demand control of factories, Lenin signed the decree.

What happened after elections in November showed that the Bolsheviks only won 23% of the popular vote, while _____ won about 40%?

The Socialist Revolutionaries; Lenin ended up meeting with his Bolshevik soliders and ordered them to disband the party, allowing him to continue rebuilding his one-party state.

Russia ended up losing the war with Germany. What did Germany want and what did Lenin give?

Germany ended up wanting all of Russia’s western territories, areas controlled by the Poles, Finns, Lithuanians.

At first, Lenin’s fellow constituents refused to accept this, but when Germany resumed their march into Russia in 1918, Lenin gained support of the Bolsheviks to sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which ceded these territories to Germany in exchange for peace.

After Russia obtained peace with Germany, did people agree with Lenin and his Bolskevik party? What did this cause?

People started disagreeing more and more with Lenin, given that he had just given away 1/3 of Russia’s population with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. As a result, people in Russia’s old army grouped up to form thee Whites in Russia, Ukraine, Siberia. They hated communism!

This ended up creating a civil war in the summer of 1918. In just one year, the Whites closed in on central Russia from 3 sides. However, Lenin and his Red Army defeated the army.

How was Lenin able to triumph in the Russian Civil War? What flaws remained on the Whites’ side?

It was mainly because of his strict regulations, like War Communism, which gave the Bolsheviks the ability to seize resources from peasants, nationalize banks/industry, and outlaw private enterprise. Additionally, any soldier who didn’t obey his command was usually shot.

The Whites lost because they lacked a lot of coordination. Their goals were spread unevenly, with some wanting liberal republicanism and others wanting monarchism. The Whites also sought to preserve the tsarist empire, which many people already disagreed with after World War I.

To prevent further civil war, what did Lenin and the Bolsheviks create? What did they do DURING the civil war (and, what was this event called)?

They ended up creating a secret police called the Cheka, whose goal was to suppress counter-revolutionaries. During the Civil War, the Cheka imprisoned and executed thousands of people they deemed a threat.

This period was called the Red Terror of 1918-1920, which involved the Cheka going around and suddenly killing people. This is what allowed the Red Army to succeed over the White armies.

Besides using the Red Army to suppress the White army, what else did Lenin use them for?

Lenin was able to use the Red Army to take back much of the land lost from the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. He also used them to take Belarus and Ukraine

Many nations were confronted by the crisis of total war in World War I. They underestimated how many casualties would occur and were now looking into people’s daily lives. What did these nations do?

Many nations required more people to support the war effort. They would usually force communities to ration, join the war, and have communities provide care for the wounded.

Many nations would also abandon capitalism, optin to set mandatory production goals and limits on wages/prices.

What did Germany do in terms of infringing on its citizens during the war?

Germany ended up creating the War Raw Materials Board by Walter Rathenau. This board was responsible for rationing and distributing raw materials to its citizens and toward the war. The Board would command certain industries to create materials, like synthetic rubber and nitrates to support war supplies.

Did Germany’s War Raw Materials Board lead to success?

For the most part, it was successful. However, because Germany didn’t tax the war profits of private industries enough, it led to inflation and the growth of a black market.

What happened after Germany was CRUSHED in the Battles of _____ and _____ in 1916? Also, what about women?

Verdun and Somme; They ended up forcing the Reichstag to pass the Auxiliary Service Law, which required all males 17-60 to only work at jobs considered “critical” for the war effort. Women also worked at factories, mines, and steel mills where they labored like men at heavy and dangerous jobs.

What did Germany’s government look like in 1917? Also, what did Hidenburg call for?

Germany started to become a military dictatorship with General Erich Ludendorff and Paul von Hindenburg joining forces to drive out Bethmann-Hollweg from office.

Hidenburg started calling for the TOTAL mobilization of war. He wanted Germany to expend all of its resources towards war to actually win it.

What happened as millions of men were sent out of the country to fight? (obviously, jobs were low, so what happened)

Job rates significantly decreased and the demand increased. This allowed many labor unions to easily get their way in negotiations for better wages, rules, and production schedules.

Additionally, the role for women changed SIGNIFICANTLY. Women became highly visible in public as workers for ammunition, cars, police, firefighters.

What happened to women as men came back from war? (did they retain their jobs?)

Many men started demanding their jobs back, and the government forced women out of jobs. Even though some women were kicked out of their workplace, they began defying gender-roles. It was common to see women shortening their skirts, smoking in public, and bobbing their hairs (called the Flappers!).

What happened on June 28th, 1914? What was the context (AKA SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS)?!

The Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated by Gavrilo Princip. After years of war in the Balkans (e.g., First and Second Balkan War), this assassination sparked the July Crisis, where Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia on the assassination, demanding Serbia to give up its freedom.

After refusing to give up its sovereignty and instead fight, Austria used its military to declare war.

The Balkan States largely wanted independence from the Ottoman rulers and European powers that were now occupying them. What did an independent Serbia want, and what was the response?

Serbia wanted to create a nation to unify all ethnic Serbs. To achieve this, Serbia often attacked Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. Though, sensing this eventual conflict outbreak, Austria annexed the territories of Bosnia and Herzegovnia, creating a buffer state.

What happened in the Balkans, called the ___ ____ ___ (of ____)?

First Balkan War of 1912; In this war, Serbia joined Greece and Bulgaria to attack the Ottoman Empire. After defeating the empire, Serbia conflicted with its ally, Bulgaria over the land, sparking the SECOND Balkan War. In this second war, Bulgaria conflicted with its former allies, ultimately bringing in Austria to force Serbia to give up Albania.

How did foreign powers interact in the July Crisis between _____ and _____?

Austria-Hungary and Serbia; One of the biggest foreign powers war Germany. Bethmann-Hollweg, the chancellor, promised full support to Austria-Hungary under a blank check, which provided unconditional support.

In response to this, Serbia called upon Russia, whose Tsar Nicholas II ordered a full military mobilization.

In the next few days, Germany launched the Schlieffen Plan, which launched a two-front attack on both France and Russia during the July Crisis in the Balkans. This drew in other powers, like Great Britain, who were infuriated at Germany’s aggressive actions into a neutral country (Belgium) to get to Russia.

What was the effect of the July Crisis? (essentially, how did people respond)

The effect of the July Crisis was INCREDIBLE! In almost every capitol city, like Vienna, Paris, London, St. Petersburg, people filled the streets to shout pro-war slogans and express their support for their nation.

Did the Schlieffen Plan work for the Germans? If it didn’t what happened?

The Schlieffen Plan did not work out for the Germans as planned. After a few months into the war, German soldiers were exhausted. Additionally, they constantly feared over what Belgium might do. Specifically, they believed that Belgium was secretly attacking the Germans, so German soldiers executed civilians suspected of joining the Belgian cause.

The Schlieffen Plan called for a swift attack on France to take Paris. What did France do in response?

France ended up attacking the Germans in the Battle of the Marne. They threw everything into this, even sending every taxi of Paris to rush reserves to the front. Thankfully, this payed off, and the Germans fell back.

By November 1914, many European nations were at a stalemate. What did they do in response? How were the conditions?

Many nations started digging trenches to protect themselves, and thus trench warfare became the norm.

The conditions were awful in the trenches. Men had almost no time to visit their family or receive proper medical care. The trenches contained bad food, they were damp and cold, and had cramped living quarters.

Was trench warfare successful? Did it actually help nations gain land? (give one example)

Trench warfare was ABSOLUTELY NOT SUCCESSFUL. In The Battle of the Somme, the British engaged in a battle by using heavy artillary to cave in on the Germans. For over seven days, the British kept up the bombardment of artillary rounds.

This allowed the British soldiers to rush out of the trenches and rush the Germans. However, after seeing that there was no more fire, the Germans opened form their trenches and began firing at the incoming British killing thousands in just one day.

What was the eastern front like for Germany? Who did they attack and for the land that they did get, what happened?

The eastern front wasn’t immediately like trench warfare. In the Battles of Tannenberg and the Battle of the Masurian Lakes, the Germans won major victories against the Russians. Through continued efforts, Germany was able to take large groups of land from Russia and the Baltic nations.

After taking these nations, the Germans put 15k individuals to occupy the taken territories. These newly installed administrators ended up using the locals as forced labor, even stealing animals and crops to supply the army in Germany.

What did the Ottomans do after they joined WW1 in an alliance with ____ and ___, known as the _____ _____?

Austria and Germany, known as the Central Powers.

After joining the war, the Ottomans moved it to the Middle East, where they fought the Russians. While fighting the Russians, Armenians became wrapped into the mix. Seeing that Armenians were siding with the Russians, the Ottoman government ordered millions of Armenians to be deported and killed (called the Armenian Genocide).

The Ottomans were actualyl partially succeeding in WW1. What happened to stop this?

The British put a stop to this! After some failed attacks from GB, they started inciting the Arabs to revolt against the Ottomans by talking with the Arab leader, Hussein ibn-Ali.

With this support, ibn-Ali was able to create an independent Arab postwar kingdom and rebelled aginst the Turks with GB help from T.E. Lawrence.

Why did people in Russia start calling for a new government?

It was mainly because of the effects of WW1. In 1915, Russian soldiers were being sent to the frontlines without weapons. They were told to find it among the dead. Additionally, following the Revolution of 1905, the tsar kept complete power over eveyrone else, including the Parliamentary body called the Duma. People were frusted that millions were dying.

To fix this, individuals that were both conservative and socialists formed the Progressive Bloc, which called for a government headed by the Duma, not the tsar.

What did ______ _ of Russia do in response to the rise of the Progressive Bloc?

Nicholas II; He ended up dissolving the Duma and then prioritized himself to support the war, leaving his wife, Tsarina Alexandra in control. There, Alexandra appointed an incredibly unpopular person named Rasputin. This led to members of the aristocracy murdering Rasputin in 1916 and the February Revolution.

What happened in the February Revolution of ____?

1917; In this Revolution, thousands of soliders left Russia and many of Russia’s cities were short on food and money. Additionally, violent protests broke out in St. Petersburg, which spread to other cities.

In response to this, Nicholas II ordered the army to open fire on the protesters, but they REFUSED!

In the end, the Duma declared a new government in March 1917, leaving Nicholas II to abdicate.

What came out of the February Revolutions? Did people support/deny it? (mention a name and the “parliament” of this!)

The Feburary Revolutions created a new provisional government that put equality before the law alongside freedom of speech, press, and the ability to strike. Though, people still didn’t support it because this new government never took Russia out of WW1.

After implementing Alexander Kerensky as Prime Minster, he continued warfare. Additionally, the new government included the Petrograd Soviet, which had 2-3k individuals who made very radical orders to weaken the provisional government