Issues & Debates

What does psychological research aim to achieve so findings can be applied to everyone?

Universality

What prevents universality?

Biased research

Gender bias =

Research misrepresents the experience & behaviour of men or women

Ways gender bias occurs

• Failure to consider differences between men & women

• Studies only using male samples

• Overemphasis on importance of biology as the driver of behaviour (not considering role of social/external factors)

• Researchers having different expectations of men & women, affecting research outcomes

Ways to avoid gender bias

• Don’t exaggerate differences between men & women where there are no real differences (avoid alpha bias)

• Don’t minimise real differences between men & women (avoid beta bias)

• Use both male & female participants

• Use both male & female researchers

• Don’t extrapolate findings from research with male pps to females (vice versa)

• Reflexivity - constantly reflecting on own biases when conducting research

Alpha Bias =

Overemphasizing differences between men & women

Beta Bias =

Underestimating differences between men & women

What does beta bias lead to?

Androcentrism

Androcentrism =

• Male-centered view of the world

• Male behavior & traits are judged to be the norm/desirable

• Female behaviour & traits are judged to be abnormal/less desirable

Gender Bias in Topics (example of Alpha Bias, Beta Bias, Male samples)

Relationships - Sexual Selection theory - Males biologically prefer quantity over quality strategy, while females prefer quality over quantity due to anisogamy. - Example of Alpha Bias

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Biopsychology - Generalized fight or flight response to everyone; however, later found that FoF is male primary response to stress, but for females it is tend and befriend. - Example of Beta Bias

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Social Influence - Conformity - Asch used 123 American men - Example of male samples

Explain two problems with gender bias in psychological research.

Leads to Andocentrism - Findings based on male samples are generalised to females, minimising the differences between genders → Lacks population validity as conclusions may not accurately represent both genders

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Leads to Alpha Bias - Exaggerating differences between genders → reinforces stereotypes → discrimination against women → socially sensitive

Evaluations of Gender Bias

Presented as fixed & enduring
E: Maccoby et al. (1974) found several gender studies concluded that girls have superior verbal ability whereas boys have better spatial ability. They suggested that these differences are ‘hardwired’ into the brain before birth. However, brain scans later found no such sex differences in brain structure. 

E: Suggests that we should be wary of accepting research findings as biological facts when they might be better explained as the result of social stereotypes. 

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COUNTER: Does not mean that psychologists should avoid studying possible gender differences in the brain
E: The popular social stereotype that women are better at multitasking may have some biological truth to it. Women’s brains have better connections between the left & right hemispheres than in men.
E: This suggests that there are biological differences between the sexes and we should not avoid investigating these, but we still should be wary of exaggerating them.

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Leads to discriminatory practices
E: For example, forced maternity leave or forced to quit their job because some research has found that women must be the primary caregivers for the child to develop properly.
E: Suggests that gender bias research can lead to validating sex discrimination and upholding sterotypical assumptions.

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Institutional sexism within scientific process
E: Men predominate at senior research level, so research agenda follows male concerns and female concerns may be marginalised or ignored.
E: This suggests that the institutional structures make research more likely to be gender biased.

Culture Bias =

Ignoring the differences between cultures

Ethnocentrism =

• Believing that one’s own culture is superior to others.

• Using the norms/values of one’s own culture to judge other cultures by

What does ethnocentrism lead to?

An Imposed Etic:

• When research developed in one culture is wrongly applied to another, assuming universality 

Cultural Relativism =

The idea that a behaviour only has meaning and can only be understood in the context of the norms and values of the culture in which it occurs.

• Therefore, cannot be generalised beyond culture

Ways to avoid cultural bias

• Cross-cultural research 

• Don’t assume universal norms across cultures

• Study single culture to understand that culture

• Don’t extrapolate findings from research within one culture to another

• Reflexivity - constantly reflecting on own biases when conducting research

• Use researchers who are native to/familiar with the culture being investigated

Culture Bias in Topics

Schizophrenia - British people of African-Caribbean descent were 9x more likely to be diagnosed with sz. This is due to western diagnosis viewing speaking to spirits as “hallucinations” being a symptom of sz, whereas their religion valued that behavior and believed it was communications from ancestors. 

Attachment - Strange Situation - Imposed western child-rearing norms - valued infant behaviours like exploration & separation as a sign of secure attachment. Other cultures like Japan have different child-rearing norms of baby constantly with mother.

Forensics - Lombroso’s Atavistic form - Scientific racism - Associated characteristics of black people (dark skin) with being primitive and criminals

Approaches - Humanistic approach - Assumes that autonomy, independence and self-actualisation are the ultimate goals - these are Western individualistic values that are different from collectivist cultures that value other things like shared success.

Evaluations of Culture Bias

Leads to ethnic discrimination
E: US army IQ test was ethnocentric and showed that African-Americans had the lowest mental age. This data led ot enduring stereotypes held by Americans towards black people concerning their IQ.
E: Suggests that can lead to scientific racism, where culturally biased research is used to justify prejudice.

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Leads to low validity
E: Ethnocentric research should not be generalised to other cultures as only one culture has been studied.
E: This suggests that if culturally biased research is applied to other cultures, it has low validity.

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COUNTER: Not all psychology is culturally relative
E: There are universal human behaviours, like basic facial expressions for emotions.
E: This suggests that cross-cultural research should not aim to reject universal human behaviour. 

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Classic psychological studies are culturally bias
E: Asch’s study only used Americans. When replicated in other cultures, collectivist cultures had significantly higher levels of conformity.
E: This suggests that our understanding of topics like social influence is actually culturally biased and should only be applied to certain culture in which the research was conducted for.

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Culture bias is less of an issue in modern day
E: Researchers have argued that as a result of increasing media globalisation, the individualist-collectivist distinction no longer applies. Takano & Osaka (1999) found that 14/15 studies that compared USA & Japan found no evidence of individualism or collectivism.
E: Suggests that cultural bias in research may be less of an issue in more recent psychological research. 

Free Will =

The idea that we have choices in how we act

Determinism =

The idea that all behaviour is due to internal or external forces over which we have no control

Hard Determinism =

All behaviour is entirely out of the individual’s control

Types of Hard Determinism (with definitions)

Biological Determinism = Behaviour is governed by internal biological factors, like genes and neurochemistry.

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Environmental Determinism = Behaviour is governed by external forces like experiences and upbringing, and that behaviour is learnt via stimulus & response associations.

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Psychic Determinism = Behaviour is governed by unconscious instincts & drives, and stem from early childhood experiences 

Soft Determinism =

Behaviour is to an extent governed by internal or external forces, but we still have some element of free will to control our behaviour.

The Scientific Emphasis on Causal Explanations

• = Refers to psychology aiming to establish cause-and effect relationships in human behaviour.

• To test causation, all variables must be controlled except for the IV.

• Any change in the DV must therefore be due to the manipulation of the IV

• This use of control enables the researcher to infer causality/cause and effect.

Free Will & Determinism in Topics

Approaches -

• Humanism - Believes that humans have free will

• Behaviourism - Behaviour is learnt from direct experiences with the environment (environmental determinism)
  

Schizophrenia - Token economies - Works on associations (environmental determinism)

Biopsychology - Localisation of function - links specific behaviors to brain regions (biological determinism)

Evaluations of Determinism

In line with features of science
E: Principles of determinism believes that behaviour has a cause so it can be empirically tested.
E: Suggests that determinism is fundamental in order to investigate the causes of behaviour to make predictions about behaviour.

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Led to successful treatments for mental health
E: Biological determinism has enabled scientists to test the biological basis of behaviour, such as depression. This has led to understandings of links between biology and behaviour. For example, that serotonin levels is linked to depression. This has helped create antidepressants to treat depression.
E: This suggests that principles of determinism has helped us make scientific discoveries to help develop treatments for those suffering.
L: Necessary for science, practical value

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Goes against legal system
E: Main principle of our legal system is that a defendant exercised free will in committing the crime. This is not consistent with the hard determinist stance that individual choice is not the cause of behaviour.
E: This suggests that hard determinism would not hold up in a court of law.
L: Less useful

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Research support
E: Brain scan evidence from Libet et al. (1983) - found that the unconscious brain activity leading up to the conscious decision to move came half a second before the participant consciously felt they had decided to move.
E: Suggests that even our most basic experiences of free will are actually determined by our brain before we are aware of them.

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Soft determinism is a compromise
E: Soft determinism is a middle ground between determinism and free will. For example, cognitive approach is an example of soft determinism as it proposes that while behavior is constrained by internal mental processes, individuals possess conscious control and choice over their actions. 
E: Suggests that soft determinism is able to take into account the role of free will and determinism.

Nativism =

The stance that agrees with the nature side of the debate.

Nature explanation of behaviour =

Behaviour is innate and a product of genetic inheritance

Empiricism =

The stance that agrees with the nurture side of the debate.

Nurture explanation of behaviour =

Behaviour is learned and a product of environmental factors, like experience & upbringing.

Example of Nature Approach

Biological

Example of Nurture Approach

Behaviourism

Nativist viewpoint Methods of Research

Heritability Coefficient = Value from 0-1 indicating the extent to which a behaviour has a genetic basis.

• A value of 1.0 means genes explain all variation in a specific trait.

Concordance Rates in twin, family & adoption studies

Interactionist Approach =

Behaviour is a product of the interaction between nature and nurture.

• e.g. An individual’s genotype (nature) sets a range of possibilities, while environmental factors determine the expression of the genotype - phenotype (nurture)

Diathesis-Stress Model =

People have a genetic vulnerability to develop a behaviour, but it will only manifest if triggered by a stressful life event. 

Nature & Nurture in Topics

Schizophrenia - Interactionist approach (diathesis stress model) - People have a genetic vulnerability to develop sz but it only manifests if triggered by a stressful life event.

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Forensics:

• Lombroso’s Atavistic Form - Offenders are a primitive subspecies (nature)

• Differential Association Theory - Criminality is learnt from pro-crime attitudes (nurture)

Attachment:

• Learning theory - association of food and caregiver - Nurture explanation of attachment

• Bowlby’s Monotropic theory - Adaptive trait to form attachment to survive - Nature explanation 

Psychopathology:

• Biological explanation of OCD - Lack of serotonin (nature)

• Behavioural explanation of Phobias - two-process model (nurture)

Evaluations of Nature/Nurture

Negative implications of nativism
E: Extreme nativist stance that all behaviour is innate and a product of genetic inheritance. Led to discrimination - women are intellectually inferior, African-Americans are intellectually inferior.
E: Suggests that has negative social consequences of believing that all behaviour is nature, so we have no control over it.

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Real world application
E: Understanding of nature/nurture debate led to genetic counselling - People can be advised on the likelihood of them developing a mental disorder due to their genetic risk (nature). Therefore, allows people to make informed choices about how they live to reduce this risk (nurture).
E: This suggests that how understanding of the interaction between nature and nurture has allowed us to reduce risk of mental disorders through gaining knowledge on nature risks, and taking precautions to limit nurture risks.

Empiricism led to behaviour shaping
E: Empiricism believes that any behaviour can be changed by altering environmental conditions. This led to behaviour shaping applied in therapy, where desirable behaviours are reinforced and undesirable behaviours are punished.
E: This suggests that nurture understanding  has helped develop ways of treatment.
L: useful

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Adoption studies
E: Adoption studies can separate the influences of nature and nurture. If adopted children are found to be more similar to their adoptive parents, this suggests that it was nurture influence. If more similar to biological parents, then nature influence.
E: Suggests that research is able to separate influence of nature and nurture.

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Interactionist approach better
E: Nativist & empiricist positions are too extremist. It is better to consider the role of both using an interactionist approach. For example, diathesis stress model proposes that people have a genetic vulnerability to develop a behaviour, but it will only manifest if triggered by a stressful life event.
E: This suggests that neither nature or nurture is fully correct - we should understand behaviour as a product of both.

Levels of Explanation AO1 (6 marks)

• Levels of Explanation = Reductionism as a hierarchy

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• Lowest level - Extreme reductionism = Explaining complex behaviour by breaking it down into component parts

• Highest level - Holism = Multivariable explanations taking into account all aspects of a person’s experience

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• At the bottom (low-level) is biological explanations, then mid-level is psychological explanations, then high-level is sociological explanations

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• Each approach exemplifies a level - biological approach is low-level, cognitive is mid-level, social learning theory is high-level

Holism =

Multivariable explanations taking into account all aspects of a person’s experience

Reductionism =

Explaining complex behaviour by breaking it down into basic component parts.

Types of Reductionism (with definition + example)

Biological Reductionism = Explaining behaviour by reducing it to a physical level, like genes & neurochemistry.

• e.g. explaining OCD as due to lack of serotonin

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Environmental Reductionism = Explaining behaviour by reducing it to stimulus-response units.

• e.g. Phobias - two-process model

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Machine Reductionism = Explaining behaviour by reducing it to machine-like models.

• e.g. Cognitive approach - comparing human mind to computers

Holism & Reductionism in Topics

Schizophrenia:

• High-level explanation - Family dysfunction

• Low-level explanation - Dopamine hypothesis

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Psychopathology:

• Biological explanation of OCD - Low-level & biological reductionism

• Behavioural explanation of Phobias - Mid-level & environmental reductionism

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Approaches:

• Cognitive approach - Comparing human mind to computers - machine reductionism

• Behaviourism - classical & operant conditioning

Evaluations of Reductionism

Reductionism in line with scientific approach
E: Lowest levels of explanation breaks down behaviour into component parts. This leads to clearly defined variables that can be operationalised, so can establish cause and effect.
E: Suggests that allows for a more objective and reliable approach to research.
L: Enables scientific credibility

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Reductionism has practical application
E: For example, biological reductionism has associated behaviours with specific biological causes. This has enabled the development of treatments for mental illnesses, like antidepressants targeting low serotonin for depression.
E: This suggests that it is useful in establishing specific causes of behaviour to help treatment
L: Useful

Oversimplifies
E: Breaking down complex behaviours into single components does not reflect whole human experience. In real life, many factors contribute to influence behaviour.
E: This suggests that it can lead to a loss of meaning and reduced validity. It can only form part of an explanation
L: Reduced validity

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Some behaviours can only be understood holistically / at a higher level
E: For example, conformity is influenced heavily by the social context it occurs in, as situational variables influence the behaviour.
E: Suggests that this behaviour should only be investigated holistically and not in terms of individuals.

Nomothetic Approach =

• Studying a large sample of participants

• to establish general laws of behaviour in order to make generalisations to the wider population.

Nomothetic approach Procedure

• Use a testable hypothesis

• Test a large sample so can make generalisations

• Sampling method should be representative of a wider population

• Collect a large amount of data

• Analysis involves quantitative methods (e.g. statistical testing)

• Attempt to establish general laws of behaviour

Types of General Laws (with definition + example)

Classification - Classifying people according to characteristics, attitudes or behaviour.

• e.g. DSM-V, Definitions of Abnormality

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Establishing Principles - Establishing laws that can be applied to human behaviour.

• e.g. Attachment influence on relationships

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Establishing Dimensions - Continuums upon which an individual can be placed.

• e.g. Locus of control

Evaluations of Nomothetic Approach

Practical application
E: Large scale research led to understanding of causes of mental illnesses. Enabled the development of successful treatments for those suffering. For example, antipsychotics developed from understanding that dopamine levels involved in sz.
E: Suggests that nomothetic approach allows to identify patterns in causes of behaviour, so helped develop successful treatments.
L: Useful

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In line with aims of science
E: Nomothetic approach aims to establish general laws, so takes a scientific approach by establishing objectivity through standardisation, control and quantitative statistical testing.
E: This suggests that it raises psychology’s status as a science.
L: Scientific credibility

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Loss of individual person
E: By focusing on establishing general laws, it fails to account for the fact that humans are not the same. Not everyone will fit the general laws, so in some cases, idiographic approach might be better to account for the whole person.
E: This suggests that nomothetic approach fails to relate to the richness of subjective human experience. 

Idiographic Approach =

Studying individuals without intending to establish general laws of behaviour.

Idiographic Approach Procedure

• Studying an individual

• Case study / in-depth interview

• Results not used to generalise findings or establish laws of behaviour

Evaluations of Idiographic Approach

Contributes to nomothetic approach
E: Idiographic approach uses in-depth qualitative methods to provide a description of one individual. This can prompt ideas for further research - a single case may generate hypotheses for further study. 
E: Suggests that idiographic approach is important for the formation of research ideas.

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More complete explanation
E: By studying individuals, it takes into account the subjective human experience.
E: This suggests that it can gather a more comprehensive understanding of the individual, allowing for richer insight.
L: More valid

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Cannot generalise
E:  By only focusing on individuals, the findings does not attempt to create general laws of behaviour. So findings cannot be generalised to others easily.
E: This suggests that not that helpful in building effective general theories of human behaviour.
L: Less useful in developing our overall understanding of human behaviour.

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Less scientific
E: Methods used in idiographic approaches, such as case studies, tend to be less scientific. Conclusions often rely on the subjective interpretation of the research, so are open to bias.
E: This suggests that may lack objectivity and scientific credibility.
L: Lack validity

Idiographic & Nomothetic in Topics

Schizophrenia - CBT to treat SZ - Idiographic

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Relationships - Ainsworth used the Strange Situation to test infants to propose 3 attachment types - Nomothetic

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Forensics:

• Restorative justice to deal with offenders - Idiographic

• Eysenck’s criminal personality of high extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism - Nomothetic

Psychopathology - CBT to treat Depression - idiographic

Ethical Issues

• Informed Consent

• Deception

• Right to Withdraw

• Protection from Harm

• Confidentiality

• Privacy

Ethical Implications of Research

can talk about 1) direct effects of the study, or 2) ways findings are used.

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Negatively Affect Participants:

Can cause psychological/physical damage

• e.g. Milgram’s obedience study

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Negatively affect members of the social group being studied:

Findings can be used to discriminate groups represented by the participants

• e.g. Lombroso’s Atavistic Form led to racial discrimination

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Change Public Policy:

Findings can be used to change public policy that affects individuals & groups

• e.g. research into IQ and genetics led to segregation of children into schools of different educational standards

Socially Sensitive =

Research which has potential implications or consequences. For example, leading to prejudice & discrimination.

Implications of Socially Sensitive Research

can only talk about ways findings are used

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Negatively Affect Participants:

Prejudice/discrimination against participants

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Negatively affect members of the social group being studied:

Findings can be used to discriminate groups represented by the participants.

• e.g. Lombroso’s atavistic form led to racial discrimination.

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Change Public Policy:

Findings can be used to change public policy that affects individuals & groups 

• e.g. research into IQ and genetics led to segregation of children into schools of different educational standards)

 

Ways to deal with Social Sensitivity

Conduct Cost-Benefit Analysis:

Weigh up potential costs (e.g. prejudice) and benefits (e.g. knowledge to help develop treatments) before conducting research. Only proceed if benefits outweigh costs.

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Ethics Commitees:

Submit research proposals to ethics committees who review the proposal and ensure ethical standards are met. They weigh up costs and benefits. They may suggest revisions and modifications to the study before approving them.

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Framing Research Question:

Take care when framing the research question. The phrasing of the research question can misrepresent certain groups and lead to prejudice and discrimination.

Ethical Implications in Topics

Social Influence - Milgram’s obedience study - caused physical & psychological harm

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Forensics - Lombroso’s Atavistic Form - led to racial discrimination of dark-skinned people

Evaluations of Ethical Implications

Can have positive implications through real world applications
E: For example, policymakers relied on research to make changes to childcare, where laws were changed to allow homosexual couples to rear children.
E: Suggests that socially sensitive reserach with ethical implications can lead to findings which are used in a positive manner. Important for researchers tackling topics that are sensitive.
L: Useful, necessary to make change.

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Ethical implications can be dealth with
E: Researchers submit research proposals to ethics committees who review the proposal and ensure ethical standards are met. They weigh up costs and benefits. They may suggest revisions and modifications to the study before approving them.
E: This suggests that ethical implications can be dealt with in today’s psychological reserach.
L: Less of a concern.

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Trade-off between Short-term cost vs Long-term gain
E: At the time of publication of research, there may be negative consequences that arise from ethical issues. However, these can be argued to be temporary, and in years to come, this research may play a significant role in helping develop our understanding further.
E: This suggests that long-term benefits may outweigh the short-term costs of ethical implications.

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Reflexivity
E: Ignoring socially sensitive topics is not a responsible approach. One way to go about ethical implictations is for reserachers to be reflexive - be aware of their own biases and reflect on how they affect the research process.
E: This suggests that research can still go ahead with ethical implications if we can be reflexive about it.