AP PSYCH UNIT 1

Nature vs. Nurture

Nature is a person’s genetic makeup; nurture includes environmental factors that influence a person’s development.

Heredity

The passing on of different physical and mental traits from one generation to another.

Eugenics

The belief in improving the genetic quality of the human population by selectively breeding.

Epigenetics vs. Brain Plasticity

Epigenetics focuses on how the environment and behavior affect a person’s genes; brain plasticity refers to changes in the structure of the brain at a cellular level.

CNS vs. PNS

CNS (Central Nervous System) consists of the brain and spinal cord; PNS (Peripheral Nervous System) consists of nerves branching from the brain and spine.

Afferent vs. Efferent Neurons

Afferent neurons send impulses to the brain from the body; efferent neurons send impulses from the brain to the body to control movement.

Somatic Nervous System vs. Autonomic Nervous System

Somatic Nervous System includes voluntary movements and 5 senses; Autonomic Nervous System controls involuntary actions.

Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Divisions

Sympathetic mobilizes the body for action; parasympathetic relaxes the body.

Glial Cell

Building blocks of behavior and mental processes, providing structure, insulation, communication, and waste transportation for neurons.

Reflex Arc

A neural pathway that controls an autonomic response to a stimulus.

Action Potential

An electrical impulse that travels down the axon of a neuron.

Permeability

The ability for some ions to cross the membrane more easily than others.

Depolarization

Occurs when an outside stimulus is strong enough to meet the threshold.

All or Nothing Principle

A neuron will only fire if the threshold is met.

Repolarization

The process that brings the neuron back to resting potential.

Refractory Period

The period during which a neuron cannot fire and must wait until repolarization occurs.

Resting Potential

The state when channels are open to rebalance charges by allowing more positive ions to exit the cell membrane.

Synapse

The small pocket of space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals in the nervous system.

Excitatory vs. Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Excitatory neurotransmitters increase the likelihood of a neuron firing; inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease this likelihood.

Multiple Sclerosis

A condition caused by damage to the myelin sheath, leading to symptoms like muscle weakness and coordination problems.

Myasthenia Gravis

An autoimmune neuromuscular disorder that disrupts communication between nerves and muscles, causing muscle weakness.

Acetylcholine (Ach)

A neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory.

Substance P

A neuropeptide involved in the transmission of pain signals.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with reward and pleasure; low levels are linked to Parkinson's disease.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters involved in pain control and affecting pain tolerance.

Epinephrine

A hormone that helps the body respond to stress and high emotional situations.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter active in the body's response to danger, increasing alertness and heart rate.

Glutamate

A neurotransmitter involved in excitatory messaging and long-term memory.

GABA

A neurotransmitter that calms the central nervous system.

Agonists vs. Antagonists

Agonists increase neurotransmitter effectiveness; antagonists decrease it.

Stimulants

Substances that promote neural activity, such as caffeine and cocaine.

Depressants

Substances that reduce neural activity, leading to drowsiness and relaxation.

Hallucinogens

Substances that cause distortion of reality perception, such as LSD and marijuana.

Opioids

Addictive substances that provide pain relief, including morphine and heroin.

Spinal Cord

Connects the brain to the body.

Brain Stem

Located on top of the spinal cord, controlling vital functions.

Medulla

Regulates breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Pons

Works with the cerebellum to coordinate movement and sleep.

Cerebellum

Enables smooth muscle movements and maintains equilibrium.

Cerebrum

The largest part of the brain, responsible for complex functions.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain involved in complex processes.

Corpus Callosum

Connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

Frontal Lobe

Responsible for higher-level thinking and motor function.

Prefrontal Cortex

Involved in planning and emotional expression.

Motor Cortex

Controls voluntary movements.

Broca’s Area

Controls muscles needed for speech.

Broca’s Aphasia

A condition characterized by difficulty producing speech.

Parietal Lobe

Processes sensory information.

Somatosensory Cortex

Involved in processing touch sensations.

Temporal Lobe

Processes auditory information and is crucial for memory formation.

Hippocampus

Important for memory and regulates autonomic functions.

Amygdala

Involved in emotion, fear perception, and memory.

Wernicke’s Area

Area of the brain responsible for understanding and creating meaningful speech.

Wernicke’s Aphasia

A condition resulting in the inability to produce meaningful speech.

Occipital Lobe

Processes visual information.

Thalamus

Relays sensory impulses to the cerebral cortex.

Limbic System

Involved in emotion, learning, and memory.

Hypothalamus

Regulates autonomic functions and works with the pituitary gland.

Pituitary Gland

Regulates other glands in the body; the 'master gland'.

Brain Lateralization

Different functions of the left and right hemispheres.

Corpus Callosum Cut Effects

Prevents communication between the left and right hemispheres.

Circadian Rhythm

The body’s biological clock regulating the sleep-wake cycle.

Alpha Waves vs. Beta Waves

Alpha waves are slower and high amplitude; beta waves are faster and low amplitude.

Activation Synthesis Theory

Dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

Consolidation Theory

Dreams help process and strengthen memories.

Restoration Theory

Sleep occurs due to tiredness from daily activities.

Sleep Apnea

A sleep disorder involving repeated interruptions in breathing.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

A condition where individuals act out their dreams during REM sleep.

Sensation

Raw data received from sensory inputs.

Sensory Transduction

Conversion of external stimuli into electrical signals interpretable by the nervous system.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulus required to detect sensation 50% of the time.

Sensory Adaptation vs. Habituation

Sensory adaptation is a decrease in sensitivity to a constant stimulus; habituation is a reduced behavioral response to a repeated stimulus.

Difference Threshold (JND)

The minimum change between two stimuli necessary for detection.

Weber-Fechner Law

States that the just noticeable difference between stimuli is a constant proportion.

Synesthesia

A condition where one sensory experience evokes another sensory experience.

Rods vs. Cones

Rods are for low-light vision; cones are for color and detail.

Trichromatic Theory

Theory stating that color perception is based on three types of color receptors.

Opponent Processing Theory

Proposes that cone information is processed by opposing pairs of color channels.

Achromatism

The inability to see color, only shades of gray.

Dichromatism

The condition of seeing only two of the three color cones.

Monochromatism

The inability to see different colors, perceiving simply shades of one color.

Trichromatism

The ability to see all colors.

Accommodation

The eye's lens changes shape to focus on objects at varying distances.

Prosopagnosia

A condition resulting from damage that leads to face blindness.

Place Theory

Theory that different pitch frequencies stimulate specific hair cells in the cochlea.

Frequency Theory

Theory that the rate of nerve impulses matches the frequency of a sound wave.

Volley Theory

Theory suggesting neurons fire in a staggered manner to encode sound frequencies.

Sensorineural Hearing Loss

A condition characterized by decreased clarity and range of sounds.

Conductive Hearing Loss

A condition caused by sound waves not being able to pass through outer to inner ear.

Pheromones

Chemical signals affecting behavior or physiology of others.

Gustation

The sense of taste.

Papillae

Taste buds responsible for detecting taste.

Epidermis

The outer layer of skin that serves as a protective barrier.

Dermis

The layer of skin containing connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerve endings.

Gate Control Theory

The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological gate that either blocks or allows pain signals.

Vestibular Sense

The sense responsible for maintaining balance.

Kinesthesis

The perception of the position and movement of body parts.