Growth and Development: Exam 1

development

the pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the life cycle

traditional approach to development

extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood, and a decline in late old age

lifespan approach to development

developmental change during adulthood as well as childhood

development is... (6 principles)

lifelong

multidimensional

multidirectional

plastic

multidisciplinary

contextual

development is multidimensional meaning...

it involves the dynamic interaction of factors like physical, emotional, and psychosocial development

development is multidirectional meaning...

results in gains and losses throughout life

development is plastic meaning...

characteristics are malleable or changeable

8 period of development

prenatal period, infancy, early childhood, middle and late childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, late adulthood

prenatal period

conception to birth - 9 months

infancy

birth to 18 or 24 months

early childhood

infancy to 5-6 years

middle and late childhood

6-11 years

adolescence

10-12 to 18-22 years

early adulthood

late teens/early 20s to 30s

middle adulthood

40-60 years

late adulthood

60/70s until death

chronological age

# of years since birth

biological age

persons age in terms of biological health

psychological age

the individual's adaptive capacities compared with people of the same chronological age

social age

refers to social roles and expectations related to a person's age ex. teen mother has higher social age

key issues in human development

• Is the change smooth or uneven (continuous versus discontinuous)?

• Is this pattern of change the same for everyone, or are there different patterns of change (one course of development versus many courses)?

• How do genetics and environment interact to influence development (nature versus nurture)?

psychoanalytic theories

- behavior is: unconscious (beyond awareness), heavily colored by emotion, a surface characteristic with symbolic meaning

- early experiences with parents extensively shape behavior

Freud and Erikson

two main psychoanalytical theorists

Freud's psychosexual development

- five stages

- each stage focuses on a body part that experiences pleasure

- how conflicts between sources of pleasure are resolved determines adult personality

oral stage

0-18 months, pleasure centers on the mouth- sucking, biting, chewing

anal stage

(18-36 months) pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination

phallic stage

(3-6 years) pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings

latency stage

6-puberty, dormant sexual feelings

genital stage

(puberty on) maturation of sexual interests

Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

- recognized Freud's contributions

- believed Freud misjudged some important dimensions of human development

- developed the psychosocial theory of development

psychosocial theory of development

- primary motivation is social and reflects a desire to affiliate with others

- 8 stages of development covering entire lifespan

- each stage has a unique developmental task called a crisis

- how the crisis is resolved will determine how development proceeds

trust vs. mistrust

Erikson's first stage during the first year of life, infants learn to trust when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner

autonomy vs. shame and doubt

Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt

Initiative vs. Guilt

Erikson's third stage in which the child (preschool) finds independence in planning, playing and other activities

Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's stage between 6 and 11 years, when the child learns to be productive

identity vs identity confusion

the period during which teenagers seek to determine what is unique and distinctive about themselves

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Erikson's stage in which individuals form deeply personal relationships, marry, begin families

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Erikson's stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and assisting younger generation

integrity vs despair

Erikson's final stage in which those near the end of life look back and evaluate their lives

Piaget's cognitive development theory

- children actively construct their understanding of world

- 4 stages of cognitive development

- underlying processes: organization and adaptation

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

- share Piaget's view that children actively construct their knowledge

- increased emphasis on social interaction and culture

the information-processing approach

- individuals manipulate, monitor, and strategize about information

- central components- memory and thinking

- no stages

- develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information

behavioral and social cognitive theories

- can only study what can be directly observed and measured

- development is observable behavior learned through experience with environment

- continuous- does not have stages

- examples of theorists: Pavlov, Skinner, and Bandura

operant conditioning - B.F. Skinner

consequences of behavior affect probability of the behavior occurring again

- rewards (increasing the likelihood of behavior reassurance)

- punishment (decreasing this chance)

social cognitive theory - Albert Bandura

cognitive processes are important mediators of environment - behavior connections

learning occurs through observing others, imitate them

ethological theory

- behavior is: strongly influenced by biology, tied to evolution, characterized by critical periods

- European zoologist Konrad Lorenz identified imprinting

natural selection

adaptive traits enable members of a species to survive to reproductive age and transmit these traits to future generations

David Buss

evolutionary psychology

All cells in the human body, except the reproductive cells, have _______ chromosomes arranged in __________ pairs.

46; 23

mitosis

reproduction of cells

meiosis

cell division that forms gametes - divides twice, 4 cells, 23 unpaired chromosomes

fertilization

23 chromosomes from each parent, fusing of sperm and egg to create a zygote

child's sex is determined by which chromosome pair

23rd

identical twins

monozygotic, single zygote that splits into two

fraternal twins

dizygotic, separate eggs and sperm

x-linked genes

more likely to affect males ex. hemophilia

down syndrome

extra copy of chromosome 21

Klinefelter syndrome

sex-linked males = XXY, infertile

Fragile X syndrome

x chromosome breaks, frequent in males

Turner syndrome

female missing X, X0, may not have ovaries

XYY syndrome

males, above average height

androgenital syndrome

genetic female with masculine external structures

androgen-insensitivity syndrome

genetic males develop as females because male genitalia require androgens to develop

ultrasound sonography

high-freqeuncy sound waves used to create a visual representation of fetus's inner structures

fetal MRI

magnetic resonance imaging designed to diagnose fetal malformations

chroionic villus sampling

small sample of placenta removed to detect genetic and chromosomal abnormalities (8-11th week of pregnancy)

amniocentesis

samples amniotic fluid to test for chromosomal or metabolic disorders

maternal blood screening

identifies pregnancy with elevated risk for certain birth defects

infertility

inability to conceive a child after 12 months of regular intercourse

___% of US individuals ages 25-49 experience impaired fertility

15

female infertility causes

low ovarian reserve, ovulation problems, blocked fallopian tubes, endometriosis

male infertility causes

low sperm count, immobile sperm, develop antibodies to own sperm

germinal period of prenatal development

period of development first 2 weeks after conception, rapid cell division

blastocyst

group of cells after about 1 week

trophoblast

outer cells provide nutrition and support for embryo

implantation

attachment of zygote to uterine wall; 11 to 15 days after conception

embryonic period

development from 2-8 weeks after conception

amnion

bag that contains a clear fluid in which embryo floats

umbilical cord

connects fetus to placenta

placenta

group of tissues containing mother and fetus' intertwined blood vessels

organogenesis

process of organ formation

endoderm

digestive and respiratory systems

mesoderm

circulatory system, bones, muscles, excretory system, reproductive system

ectoderm

skin, nervous system, brain, sensory centers

without hormones, all would develop into

females anatomically

testosterone

spurs differentiation of the male duct system (Wolffian)

what forms at 8th week

external genitals under influence of dihydrotestosterone

fetal period

development from 2 months after conception to birth

first trimester (weeks 1-12) contain which periods

both the germinal and embryonic periods

viability

the age at which a fetus has a chance of surviving outside of the womb

teratogen

any agent that can cause a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive and behavioral outcomes

examples of teratogen

drugs (prescription, nonprescription), environmental pollutants, incompatible blood types, infectious diseases, nutritional deficiencies, maternal stress, advanced age of parent

psychoactive drugs

caffeine (low birth weight, possible miscarriage), alcohol (fetal alcohol spectrum disorders), nicotine, illegal drugs

infectious diseases affecting birth

syphilis (in utero), genital herpes (vaginal delivery), AIDS (in utero)

prenatal care includes:

screening of manageable conditions and treatable diseases, medical care, educational, social and nutritional services

postpartum period: involution

process by which the uterus returns to its pre-pregnant size 5-6 weeks after birth