Biology part 1

Morula

zygote that is cleaved into 16-32 cell stage

Blastula

zygote with cleaved into 128 cell stage

Gastrula

zygote cleaved with three germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm

Regulative cleavage

indeterminate, results in two normal viable offspring

Mosaic (Determinate) cleavage

results in failure of organisms developing

When does acrosomal reaction happen (stages of zygote) and where does it implant

at blastocyst stage it implants into uterine lining

MEMORIZE

Ethylene

fruit ripening

Gibberellins

promote seed development, shoot and stem elongation, 🍉🍈🍇fruit growth

Cytokinins

regulate cell division, regulate shoot and root elongation, prevent leaf aging and death☠️🌿

Abscisic acid

❌inhibits growth, is released in response to stress, inhibits ❌seed development

Gametophyte stage

PLANTS haploid or single set of chromosome sexual stage of plants/algae🌱. The spores of a diploid plant perform mitosis forming a Gametophyte and then make gametes.

Sporophyte Stage

diploid or 2x set of chromosome sexual stage of plants/algae. Stage when after the two gametes fuse and make a zygote which through mitosis makes an organism or a sporophyte for a plant

Sinoatrial node (SA node)

initiates electrical signal 💡

coordinates contraction of atria

sends signal to AV node

Atrioventricular node (AV node)

relays electrical signal from atria to ventricles

adds signal conduction delay to ensure atria have finished contraction before ventricles contract

Bundle of His

sends signal to the Purkinje fibers

Purkinje fibers

coordinate contraction of the ventricles

MEMORIZE

remember the upper chambers are the right and left atria and the below chambers are right and left ventricle

Innate behavior

behavior that occurs without no thought and organism is born with it

Instincts

behavior that happens without thought

never taught

Reflex

involuntary rapid response to stimulus

involves a neural circuit

Fixed action pattern

innate behavior started by a specific stimulus

once started, behavior must always continue to completion

Associative Learning

animals learn two thingd are connected

Spatial learning

type of associative learning, where animals connect landmarks to specific location

Habituation

allows an animal to ignore irrelevant information

Spontaneous recovery

animal forgets information that was irrelevant and turns back to its initial behavior

Ritualized fighting

fighting is ritualized to avoid significant injuries

when starting, they size each other up before attacking, seeing if they can win

Reciprocal Altruism

sacrifices an individual might make for another animal in anticipation for a later reward

Polyandry

one female, many male partners

Epigenetic

example is when environmental factors are not directly altering the DNA itself but they influence epigenetics which in turn get passed onto daughter cells

Epistasis

interaction between different genes, where one gene affects the expression of another.

Pleiotropy

when 1 gene influences many different traits. 

Polygenic inheritance

multiple genes interact to influence one trait with a continuous variation.

liek hair, height, and skin

Disruptive selection

favors the extreme phenotypes OTHER than the intermediate phenotype

Stabilizing selection

favors only the intermediate phenotype

Directional Selection

Favors only 1 of the extreme phenotypes

Phases of cell cycle MEMORIZE

Marine (saltwater) fish homeostasis: How does this type of fish maintain homeostasis

This is a hypotonic fish where the environment is more hypertonic. The fish drinks a lot of water and loses a lot of water through its skin. Their pee is concentrated and salty

Freshwater fish homeostasis: How does this type of fish maintain homeostasis

This is a hypertonic fish where the environment is hypotonic. This fish drinks little water and absorbs more water through the skin. Their pee is diluted

What are the 6 hormones of the Anterior pituitary gland?

FLAT PiG🐷

FH, follicle stimulating hormone

LH, luteinizing hormone

ACTH, adrenocorticotropin

TSH, Thyroid stimulating hormone

Prolactin,

ignore,

Growth hormone (GH).

What are the hormones of the posterior pituitary gland?

Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone) → promotes kidneys to hold water, increases blood pressure

Oxytocin

MEMORIZE

Where is calcium Ca2+ and Salt Na+, Cl- located regarding neuron

Outside of the neuron

Milky-Salted Bananas

Milk → Calcium and

Salt → Na+Cl- are located outside of the cell (coated banana)

Where is potassium located regarding the neuron

MIlky-Salted Bananas 🍌🐒

Located inside the cell

K+ → banana itself

Sperm Production pathway

SEVEn-Up 7️⃣👆

Semniferous tubules → Epididymis → Vas Deference → Ejaculatory Duct → Urethra → exits the penis

B cells

act as Antigen presenting cells

differentiate into plasma cells (making antibodies)

or memory B cells

Monocytes

they differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells

phagocytose and present antigen

Neutrophils

MOST ABUNDANT white blood cell

second responders

phagocytose pathogens

Lymphocytes

consist of B cells, T cells, NK cells

Eosinophils

release granules against parasites

least abundant

basophils

MOST rare

release granules with histamine and heparin

What is an Allantois ?

 extraembryonic structures found outside of the developing embryo in most vertebrate animals.

In egg-laying vertebrates (birds), the allantois stores waste products and facilitates gas exchange across the shell.

MEMORIZE

Sarcomere

a structural unit of a myofibril

there are many sarcomeres in a myofibril but multiple myofibrils in a muscle fiber

MEMORIZE

Types of Muscle: Smooth muscle

involuntary, mononucleated and non striated cells

in organs, airways, blood vessels

Skeletal muscle

voluntary (somatic), multinucleated, striated cells

around bones

Cardiac muscle

involuntary, mononucleated, striated cells

throughout the heart

Angiosperm

flowering and fruit plants

seeds are dispersed via fruit 🍇🍉🍊🍏🍋

ovary protects the ovule where the seed and embryo sac form

can exhibit double fertilization

endosperm + ovule

Gymnosperm

coniferous plants (trees)

seeds are dispersed by the wind

unprotected seeds

Cell differentiation: Totipotent

stem cells that is capable of turning into a complete embryo or differentiating into any cell type

Cell differentiation: Pluripotent

Stem cells that can differentiate into any of the 3 germ layers

Cell differentiation: Multipotent

stem cells can differentiate into any cell type within a particular lineage

Differentiated

fully specialized and can only reproduce cells of their own type

Gram Positive bacteria staining. What color does it stain? And why does it stain that color?

Stains purple

Because of the thick peptidoglycan wall in the cell wall

Gram Negative bacteria staining: What color does it stain? What is unique to them

Pink !

Thinner peptidoglycan layer and this bacteria has an outer membrane and an inner membrane

Epidermis location

Very outer layer of the skin

Dermis location

middle layer of skin

consists of the hair follicle/root, sebum tubes, connective tissue, nerves, and blood vessels

Hypodermis

most bottom layer of skin

consists of adipose tissue and blood vessels

Layers of the Epidermis MEMORIZE

Come Lets Get Some Beers 🍺🍻

Corneum Lucidum Granulosum Spinosum Basale/Germinativum

List the leukocytes from most to least abundant in the body

Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas🐒🍌

[most abundant]

Neutrophils

→

 Lymphocytes

→ 

Monocytes/Macrophages

→ 

Eosinophils

→ 

Basophils

[Least abundant]

Arthropods

Invertebrate animals with

• exoskeleton

• body segmentation

• jointed appendages

• triploblastic

• bilateral symmetry

→ classes further divided into insecta, arachnida, crustacea

Body segmentation meaning

the body is divided into the head (where nerves are), thorax, and abdomen, cephalization

Bilateral Symmetry meaning

example: an ant

both sides of the body is symmetrical when divided

What ratio will Dihybrid cross make

9:3:3:1

AaBb x AaBb

9 AxBx

3 aaBx

3 Axb

1 aabb

Dihybrid cross meaning

cross between two parents that are heterozygous for alleles for 2 genes

Conjugation

type of bacterial horizontal gene transfer. Involves one bacteria connecting to another via pilus and transferring gene. Pilus is a cytoplasmic bridge

Transformation

type of bacterial horizontal gene transfer. Bacteria transfer DNA through their pores. loose DNA fragments escape through pores and into a different bacterial pore where they take in extracellular DNA

Transduction

type of horizontal gene transfer. Type of DNA transfer between bacteria where the virus infects one bacteria, contains their DNA, and infects another bacteria. Consists of multiple host DNA being trasnferred.

Obligate anaerobe

only anaerobic respiration

Aerotolerant

only anaerobic respiration but can tolerate oxygen

Facultative anaerobe

prefers aerobic respiration but capable of anaerobic

Microaerophile

requires aerobic respiration but too much O2 is toxic

Obligate aerobe

only aerobic respiration

MEMORIZE

What type of respiration is E. Coli

facultative aerobe. Without oxygen performs glycolysis to make ATP and fermentation to regenerate NAD+

What is the Hardy Weinberg Equilibirum

principle stating that the genetic variation in a population will remain constant from one generation to the next in the absence of disturbing factors

→ genetic diversity of a population will stay the same as it is for generations IF THERE ARE NOT ANY FACTORS THAT ARE KNOWN TO CHANGE ALLELE FREQUENCIES

What are the conditions to meet Hardy-Weinberg Equilibirum

"Large Random MnM":

1. Large populations

2. Random mating

3. No mutation:

4. No natural selection: **Evolution must not occur.

5. No migration: There is no gene flow, meaning the population must be isolated.

Cell determination

the process by which a cell becomes committed to a specific fate.

No change in appearance or function.

Already established regulatory instructions that will determine future gene expression

Cell differentiation

cell starts to express those predetermined genes. production of proteins and functional characteristics that give the cell its specialized phenotype.

FSH function in males and females

Think FSH → S for sperm → promotes spermatogenesis in males

promotes follicle development in females

Luteinizing hormone LH in males and females

males: promotes testosterone (hormone) production, and releases mature sperm in testes

Females: LH → L for launching the egg→triggers completion of meiosis 1 and ovulation of the egg in females.

Estrogen in males and females

supports spermatogenesis in males

stimulates 2ndary sex characteristics and LH during follicular phase, develops endometrium in females

Progesterone in male and female

supports spermatogenesis, helps in stress/mood control 😀in male

Female! Think Progesterone → Protect

thickens endometrium, inhibits LH/FSH in females

Testosterone in female and male

promotes male 2ndary sex traits, stimulates sperm function

supports libido and bone density in females

Amniote

Mammals, birds, and reptiles make amnion.

Amnion → has amniotic fluid providing cushion

Anamniote

fish, amphibians. Don’t make amnion

Lay their eggs in water which provides cushion

What does the Stamen consist of and what gender

Anther and Filament. Male flower

What consists of Pistil and which gender

Stigma, Style, Ovary, Ovule. In female flower

Kidney general functions

• Filtering the blood making urine

• Reabsorbing essential nutrients and minerals from the filtrate

• Regulating blood pressure

• Regulating acid-base balance via H and HCO3-  secretion and reabsorption

• Maintaining osmolarity and electrolyte balance

• Stimulating red blood cell production