psychodynamic approach

assumptions of the psychodynamic approach

• The psychodynamic approach assumes that experiences in early childhood plays a key role in determining an individual’s mental/emotional state and outcomes in later life e.g:

  • If someone was not breastfed or was breastfed for too long they may be ‘stuck’ in the oral phase

    • This would manifest in behaviour such as addiction, neediness, greed, continual nail-biting

  • If someone is conflicted due to dysfunctional parental behaviour in childhood, they may exhibit defence mechanism behaviour

    • They may be in denial as to their unhappy childhood and claim that their upbringing was perfect

• A key assumption of the psychodynamic approach is that there are vast swathes of the mind that are inaccessible to conscious awareness

  • Freud used the metaphor of an iceberg to explain the different levels of consciousness

  • The unconscious mind is represented by the hidden portion (i.e. the dangerous part) of the iceberg

    • This is because a core principle of the psychodynamic approach is that unconscious thoughts lie deep, may be disturbing and push upwards into the preconscious and conscious mind

    • Unconscious thoughts which intrude into the upper parts of the iceberg (preconscious and conscious mind) may manifest in behaviour as dreams, defence mechanisms or fixation

the conscious mind

• The part of the mind that the individual is aware of, which is used to form conscious thoughts

the preconscious mind

• The part of the mind that sits just below the surface of the conscious mind, where dreams and Freudian slips lurk

  • Freudian slips reveal secret feelings - what is said appears to be accidental but it expresses the person’s true, repressed feelings (e.g. ‘I loathe my husband’ instead of ‘I love my husband’)

  • Dreams reveal secret fears/desires e.g. dreams of flying = the wish to break free from limitations, to be free; dreams of being naked in public = anxiety about others accepting you

the unconscious mind

• The hidden depths and mass of the iceberg; the part of the mind that holds information and feelings that holds information and feelings that the individual may be unaware of e.g. secret desires or fears, repressed memories or emotions, the effects of trauma

• Psychodynamic therapists suggest that psychoanalysis is a necessary way to confront the frightening parts of the unconscious mind

freud’s conceptualisation of personality structure

• Freud conceptualised personality as a tripartite structure: Id, Ego, Superego

• Freud believed the Id, Ego, Superego all develop at different points in a person’s life and each is qualitatively distinct from the other

• The Id, Ego, Superego are not separate entities; they work together within the personality of each individual but not necessarily in harmony

the id

• Freud believed the Id is present from birth

• It is the instinctive part of our personality and operates according to the pleasure principle

  • It consists of pure erotic energy and primal urges

  • The id seeks only self-indulgent pleasure and instant gratification

• The id is important in early life to ensure survival, which is why an infant will cry until their needs are met

the ego

• The Ego develops around the age of 2

• The Ego operates according to the reality principle

  • E.g. ‘I’d like to have it but it may take time to get it and I must accept that it may never happen’

• The Ego is the reality principle acting as the mediator between the Id and Superego and balancing the demands of each at all times

  • E.g. the id must sometimes be ‘tamed’ as its wild impulses could lead to trouble

  • E.g. the superego must sometimes be ignored if it is likely to lead to punitive self-blame or excessive guilt

• The ego develops in response to control by others - usually one’s parents - during the anal stage of development

the superego

• The superego develops around the age of 5

• The superego operates according to the morality principle, rather like a disapproving parent or teacher

• The superego can also show approval (however this is less likely than disapproval)

• The superego represents an internalised sense of right and wrong, the conscience/morality aspect of the self

  • Moral standards are specifically learned via one’s same-sex parent and the specific type of discipline instilled in one’s childhood

strengths of the role of the unconscious & structure of personality

• Freud was at the forefront of the move in psychology towards considering the role of childhood experience as being a key influence on behaviour

  • It makes sense to see the link between parental treatment of the child and conflicted behaviour in the adult as parents are at the core of a child’s world until (and beyond) adolescence

  • This makes his theory high in external validity

• The psychodynamic approach has informed therapy (specifically talking therapy) since the early 20th century and continues to be a driving force today in 1:1 and group counselling

  • This means that it has good application to settings beyond the merely theoretical

weaknesses of the role of the conscious & structure of personality

• Freud’s theory of the unconscious mind and structure of personality is extremely difficult to operationalise, test and measure

  • This is because the concepts and mechanisms involved are highly subjective and open to interpretation

  • Therefore the theory is unfalsifiable and lacking in scientific methodology

• Freud’s theory suffers from psychic determinism which can be summed up in the phrase ‘there’s no such thing as an accident’

  • This assumes that all outcomes have already been decided and that deliberate forces intrude from the unconscious mind (e.g. Freudian slips)

  • Therefore this negates the idea of people having free will, which ultimately limits the scope of the theory

defence mechanisms overview

• The Ego uses defence mechanisms to help balance the conflicting demands of the Id and the Superego

  • E.g. the Id screams ‘I want it now!’; the Superego replies ‘You are wrong to want it!’

  • The ego must find a way to manage this internal struggle to prevent the self from becoming overwhelmed by potential short-term trauma/threat

  • This balancing act (and the resulting defence mechanisms) happens at an unconscious level, it is not the product of conscious, rational thought

• Defence mechanisms work as a protective mechanism for the psyche

  • They may protect the individual from having to face harsh truths or unpleasant realities, some of which it may be socially unacceptable to admit to e.g. ‘my childhood was awful’, ‘I wish I never had children’

• Defence mechanisms may provide temporary relief or solution from having to confront the unsavoury facts of one’s existence but they are, in the long-term, psychologically unhealthy and damaging

  • E.g. ‘I’m pretending that my childhood was wonderful as otherwise I don’t think I can bear having to consider what it was truly like’

types of defence mechanisms - displacement

• The focus of a strong emotion is directed towards a neutral/uninvolved person/object, which reduces anxiety as it allows the expression of that strong emotion

  • E.g. ‘I shout at my children because I cannot shout at my boss’

types of defence mechanisms - repression

• Unpleasant/distressing memories are pushed down into the unconscious mind and ‘smothered’ so that they are unable to cause anxiety or hurt e.g.

  • ‘I have no memory of being bullied at school’

types of defence mechanisms - denial

• This manifests as a refusal to accept the reality of an unpleasant situation or event: if it didn’t happen, then it can’t harm anyone

  • E.g. ‘I am sure that my partner isn’t stealing from me, I must have mislaid that £50 notes somewhere’

psychosexual stages overview

• According to Freud, children pass through several psychosexual stages of development

  • Oral (0-1 years)

  • Anal (1-3 years)

  • Phallic (3-6 years)

  • Latent (6 years to puberty)

  • Genital (puberty onwards)

• Each stage is linked to specific milestones and timelines in the child’s life

  • If a person develops healthily and deals successfully with the conflicts present in each stage, they should pass through the stages without difficulty

  • By the time adulthood is reached and all stages have been passed, the person should be fully adjusted and conflict-free

fixation overview

• Fixation occurs if a child becomes ‘stuck’ at one of the stages

  • This happens if the child’s upbringing is dysfunctional or if they have suffered some type of trauma or adverse experience

  • They may develop a fixation which is likely to impede and obstruct their happiness and functionality as an adult

Oedipus/Electra complex overview

• The main indicator of healthy development is if the child successfully navigates the phallic phase by going through Oedipus complex or the Electra Complex

  • The Oedipus Complex is the phase in which the boys initially feel an unconscious desire for closeness to their mother and hate/fear their father due to castration anxiety

  • Girls go through a similar process known as the Electra Complex in which they experience penis envy and closeness to their father/hatred for the mother

  • Over time, both boys and girls come out of the Oedipus/Electra complex and identify with the same-sex parent

Little Hans case study

• Freud conducted a case study of Little Hans, a 5 year old boy with a horse phobia

  • Freud’s detailed notes and observations of Hans allowed him to interpret Hans’ phobia as evidence of the Oedipus complex (the horse represented his father according to Freud)

  • Hans emerged from the phobia towards the beginning of the latency stage, which Freud interpreted as evidence of him having resolved this conflict

oral stage

• Description

  • The mouth is the focus of pleasure

  • Conflict can arise around breastfeeding (too much or too little)

• Consequences in adulthood of unresolved conflict

  • Oral fixation: smoking, overeating, biting nails, critical and sarcastic comments, addiction, neediness

anal stage

• Description

  • The anus is the focus of pleasure

  • Conflict can arise when toilet training e.g. holding on too tightly (retentive) or defecating freely (expulsive)

• Consequences in adulthood of unresolved conflict

  • Anal retentive fixation: neatness, perfectionism, neuroticism

  • Anal expulsive: messiness, insensitivity, chaos

phallic stage

• Description

  • The genital area is the focus of pleasure

  • Conflict can arise and cause the Oedipus or Electra complex

• Consequences in adulthood of unresolved conflict

  • Phallic fixation: vanity, over-ambition, narcissism, impulsivity

latency stage

• Description

  • Earlier conflicts become repressed

• Consequences in adulthood of unresolved conflict

  • None

genital stage

• Description

  • The genitals are the focus of pleasure

  • Sexual desire becomes conscious as puberty hits

• Consequences in adulthood of unresolved conflict

  • Genital fixation: difficult forming heterosexual relationships, particularly difficulties with penetration

strengths of defence mechanisms & psychosexual stages

• Psychotherapy can enable people to come to terms with and recognise the underlying conflicts and trauma that may result in defence mechanisms

  • This is highly applicable to counselling for a range of conditions, e.g. phobias, sexual fetishism, anger issues

  • This gives the theory behind defence mechanisms good external validity

• Freud’s concept of the psychosexual stages has provided important insights into how early experiences can shape personality and behaviour

  • Some research has supported the idea that oral and anal fixations are easily identified and can be traced back to childhood experience

  • This means that Freud’s theory has shown staying power beyond its immediate conception in the early 20th century

weaknesses of defence mechanisms & psychosexual stages

• There are numerous possible alternative explanations for a person’s behaviour other than of them being fixated at a psychosexual stage e.g:

  • Someone who is needy/critical/addicted may have learned this behaviour from parental role models - it learned this behaviour from parental role models - it may have nothing to do with them being breastfed (or not)

  • An extremely neat person may have autism spectrum disorder, a feature of which can be an adherence to order, routine, patterns and precision

    • This limits the usefulness of Freud’s theory