Comprehensive U.S. Government and Politics Key Concepts

Power

The ability to get others to do what you want, even against their will; can be exercised through force, wealth, authority, or persuasion.

Bases of Power

Sources from which power derives — e.g., money, religion, military force, political office, and social status.

Politics

The process of making collective decisions about the distribution of resources and values; Harold Lasswell: 'who gets what, when, and how.'

Government (Easton)

David Easton defined government as the institution that makes 'authoritative allocations of values' — binding decisions about who gets what in society.

Conquest Theory

Government originated when stronger groups conquered weaker ones and established rule over them; power came first, legitimacy was constructed later.

Social Contract Theory

People voluntarily gave up some freedoms in exchange for security and order provided by a government.

Class Struggle Theory

Associated with Marx; government is an instrument used by the ruling (property-owning) class to maintain dominance over the working class.

John Locke

Preferred limited government that protects natural rights (life, liberty, property). Believed people have the right to overthrow a government that violates those rights. Heavily influenced the Founders.

Thomas Hobbes

Preferred a strong, centralized sovereign (Leviathan). Without strong authority, life is 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.'

Democracy

Rule by the many — citizens hold political power either directly or through elected representatives.

Autocracy

Rule by a single individual with unlimited power (e.g., a dictator).

Oligarchy

Rule by a small, elite group based on wealth, military power, or party membership.

Anarchy

Absence of any government or organized authority.

Aristocracy

Rule by a privileged noble class based on heredity or birth.

Plutocracy

Rule by the wealthy; policy is dominated by the rich.

Procedural Democracy

Democracy based on fair rules/processes: who participates, equal voting weight, majority rule.

Substantive Democracy

Goes beyond fair process — focuses on whether outcomes protect rights, equality, and justice, even if the majority voted for something unjust.

4 Purposes of Government

1) Maintain order and security. 2) Protect individual rights. 3) Promote general welfare. 4) Ensure justice and equal treatment.

The Enlightenment

Philosophical movement ('Age of Reason') believing the world can be understood through reason. Advanced: reason, natural rights, consent of the governed, and limited government.

Natural Rights

Rights individuals possess by nature — life, liberty, and property (Locke). Government exists to protect these rights, not grant them.

Sons of Liberty

Colonists who resisted British taxation through boycotts, protests, and acts of civil disobedience against tax collectors.

Daughters of Liberty

Resisted British imports by spinning cloth and producing homemade goods; organized economic boycotts.

Boston Tea Party (1773)

Colonists dumped 342 chests of British tea into Boston Harbor to protest the Tea Act — a direct act of defiance against taxation without representation.

Intolerable Acts (1774)

Britain's response to the Tea Party: closed Boston Harbor, revoked Massachusetts self-governance, forced colonists to house British troops.

Declaration of Independence

Argued all men are created equal with unalienable rights (life, liberty, pursuit of happiness). Justified breaking from Britain by citing violations of the social contract.

Articles of Confederation

America's first constitution (1781). Created a 'league of friendship' — a loose alliance between states with a very weak national government.

Flaws of the AoC

Could not tax directly, regulate commerce, enforce laws, raise an army, or be amended without unanimous consent. No executive or judiciary.

Shays' Rebellion (1786)

Debt-ridden Massachusetts farmers revolted against tax collectors. The powerless national government couldn't stop it — exposed the AoC's fatal weakness and led to the Constitutional Convention.

Constitutional Convention (1787)

55 delegates from 12 states met in Philadelphia. Intended to amend the AoC but drafted an entirely new Constitution. Held in secret.

Notable Delegates

George Washington (presiding), James Madison ('Father of the Constitution'), Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin, Gouverneur Morris.

Monarchy (pros/cons)

Pros: decisive, efficient. Cons: no accountability, prone to tyranny, relies on one ruler's quality.

Aristocracy (pros/cons)

Pros: experienced, stable. Cons: serves elite interests, unrepresentative.

Democracy (pros/cons)

Pros: represents people, accountable. Cons: mob rule potential, majority can tyrannize minorities.

Republicanism

Citizens elect representatives to govern on their behalf; authority derives from the consent of the governed.

Federalism

Power is divided between the national government and state governments; both levels are sovereign.

Separation of Powers

Government divided into three branches: Legislative (makes laws), Executive (enforces laws), Judicial (interprets laws).

Checks and Balances

Each branch can limit the powers of the others (e.g., presidential veto, congressional override, judicial review).

Freedom over Efficiency

The Constitution was intentionally slow and redundant — the Founders feared tyranny more than inefficiency.

Federalists

Supported ratification; argued the Constitution would create effective government while protecting rights through structure. Wrote The Federalist Papers.

Antifederalists

Opposed ratification; feared a too-powerful central government and demanded explicit individual rights protections.

Bill of Rights

First 10 amendments; added as a Federalist concession to gain Antifederalist support for ratification. Explicitly protects individual liberties.

Formal Amendment Process

Step 1: Proposed by 2/3 of Congress OR 2/3 of state legislatures calling a convention. Step 2: Ratified by 3/4 of state legislatures or state conventions.

Informal Amendment Process

Change through Supreme Court interpretation, presidential action, congressional legislation, and political custom — without formal amendment.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Established judicial review — SCOTUS has authority to strike down laws that violate the Constitution. 'It is the province of the Judicial Department to say what the law is.'

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Established implied powers ('necessary and proper' clause); Congress can act beyond enumerated powers. Also: states cannot tax federal institutions — national supremacy.

13th Amendment

Abolished slavery and involuntary servitude (1865).

14th Amendment

Granted citizenship to former slaves; guaranteed equal protection and due process (1868). Vehicle for incorporating BOR to states.

15th Amendment

Prohibited denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude (1870).