Human Anatomy Exam 1

Body Organization and terminology, Cell anatomy, Histology, Integumentary System

Gross Anatomy

Study of structures that can be seen by the unaided eye

Systemic anatomy

Studying anatomy by observing one complete organ system at a time (ex: Cardiovascular system)

Regional Anatomy

Studying anatomy by observing a single part of the body at a time (ex: head)

Microscopic Anatomy

Study of structures that can only be seen with magnification

Cytology

Study of cells

Histology

Study of tissues (made up of structurally and functionally similar cells)

Intracellular

Cells that form the body wall and everything within the body (intracellular space, compartment, and fluid)

Extracellular

Spaces between cells

• Interstitial space - spaced directly between cells (can be chemically changed by cells)

• Plasma - mobile space between blood cells, allows for transport of materials

3 divisions of the body

1. Body Wall

2. Body Cavities

3. Organs

Body Wall

Skin, skeleton, and muscles that form the framework that supports the body and encloses the major cavities and organs of the body

Body Cavities

Compartments that house major organs

Organs

Two or more tissues that make up an anatomically distinct structure. Found as part of the body wall (skin), contained in body cavities (ex: heart), or in transit between the two (blood vessels)

Major Body Cavities (list)

Dorsal Cavity and Ventral Cavity

Dorsal Cavity

Consists of the cranial cavity and the spinal cavity

1. Cranial cavity - skull houses the brain

2. Spinal cavity - vertebrae house the spinal cord

Ventral Cavity

Cavity that can be subdivided into the thoracic cavity and abdomenopelvic cavity. These subdivided cavities are divided by the diaphragm.

Thoracic Cavity

Separated from the abdominopelvic cavity by the diaphragm. Consists of three parts:

1. Pericardial cavity - surrounds the heart, formed by the pericardial membrane (a serous membrane)

2. Pleural cavity - surrounds the lungs, formed by the pleural membrane (a serous membrane)

3. Mediastinum - between the lungs, not enclosed by a membrane

Abdominopelvic Cavity

Below the diaphragm, enclosed by the muscular abdominal wall and pelvic girdle. Two parts:

1. Abdominal cavity - enclosed by abdominal wall. Contains the peritoneal cavity, which is formed by the peritoneal membrane that extends into the pelvic cavity

2. Pelvic cavity - enclosed by pelvic bones

Serous Membrane (parts)

1. Serous cavity

2. Serous fluid

3. Visceral serous membrane

4. Parietal serous membrane

Visceral Serous Membrane

Part of the serous membrane that touches the organ

Parietal Serous Membrane

Part of the serous membrane that has no contact with the enclosed organ

Specific serous membranes (3 locations)

1. Pericardial serous membrane — heart

2. Pleural serous membrane — lungs

3. Peritoneal serous membrane — in abdominopelvic cavity, surrounds stomach, small and large intestines

4 tissue types

Epithelial, Muscle, Connective, and Neural tissues

anatomic position

standing upright facing forward, feet together, arms handing at sides with palms facing forward

surface anatomy

features that can be seen without cutting

cephalic/cephalon (parts)

Head

1. Facial - face region

2. Cranial - skull

Trunk (anatomic parts)

1. Thoracic (thorax)

2. Abdominal

3. Pelvic

4. Dorsal - upper back (ribs)

5. Lumbar - lower back (no ribs)

Pectoral limb (parts)

1. Axillary - armpit

2. Brachial - upper arm

3. Antebrachial - forearm

4. Digital/phalangeal - fingers

Pelvic limb (parts)

1. Gluteal/Buttock

2. Thigh/Femoral

3. Leg/Crus - knee to ankle

4. Popliteal - back of knee

5. Digital/Phalangeal - toes

Superior (Cranial)

Above or towards head

Inferior (Caudal)

Below or towards tail

Anterior (ventral)

Towards the front

Posterior (dorsal)

Towards the back

Medial

Towards midline

Lateral

Away from midline

Proximal

Near the point of origin

Distal

Away from the point of origin

Supericial

Near the surface of the body or organ

Deep

Below the surface of the body or organ

Supine

Laid face up

Prone

Laid face down

Contralateral

On the opposite side

Ipsilateral

On the same side

Sagittal

Separates the left and right sides of the body

Midsagittal plane

Unique sagittal plane at the midline, creates equal left and right halves of the body

Coronal (frontal) plane

Separates anterior from the posterior

Transverse (or horizontal or cross section) plane

Separates superior from inferior

Oblique plane

Sectional plane at any other angle

Magnification

The increase in the apparent size of the specimen being viewed

Resolution

Measure of clarity, defined as the ability to distinguish two points as separate points (closer together → higher resolution)

Working Distance

The distance between the specimen and the objective lens

Field of view

The round area visible when looking through a microscope

Depth of field

The thickness of the specimen that is in clear focus

Wet mount slide

A temporary preparation of a specimen

Prepared slide

a permanent preparation of a specimen

Parfocal

Characteristic of a microscope design that allows changing objective lenses without a significant change in focus

Parcenter

Characteristic of a microscope design that allows changing objective lenses without a significant change in the position of the center of the field of view

Cells

the smallest structural and functional unit of life

Tissues

Cells of similar function and structure grouped together

Organ systems (definition)

group of organs that work together in a related function (ex: lymphatic or endocrine system)

Three divisions of the cell visible with compound light microscope

1. Plasma membrane

2. Cytoplasm

3. Nucleus

Plasma membrane

Bilipid layer with embedded proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates

Phospholipid bilayer

Selective cell barrier, phospholipids form the bilayer by having a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails, bilayer is created spontaneously

Proteins (in plasma membrane)

Have 5 functions:

1. Transport passageways

2. Enzymes - catalyses reactions

3. Receptors - triggers responses in cells (receives messages)

4. Recognition (cell surface identity markers)

5. Attachment/adhesion (connects cells to cytoskeleton/other cells

Pore/leak channel

Allows one type of molecule to pass through plasma membrane based on size, shape, and charge

Gated channel

Same restrictions are pores but can close and open to prevent all transport

Facilitated transport protein

Always closed, but molecules can bind to move the transporter. Works passively, moves molecules across the concentration gradient (high to low)

Protein pump

Requires ATP, same process as facilitated transport protein but works against the concentration gradient (low to high)

Bulk transport

Vesicles move large quantities of substances across the cell membrane (endocytosis and exocytosis)

Cholesterol (plasma membrane)

Affects fluidity and elasticity of the plasma membrane

Carbohydrates (plasma membrane)

Allows for cell recognition and interaction in plasma membrane

Passive processes

Does not require ATP, occurs spontaneously. 2 types:

1. Diffusion

2. Osmosis

Active processes

Requires ATP, typically non-spontaneous until energy is used. Two types:

1. Pump

2. Bulk transport

Microvilli

smaller versions of cilia, no controlled movement (no microtubules)

Cilia

have plasma membrane and interior microtubules, can control their movement

Flagella

Forms the tail of sperm cells, composed of a plasma membrane and interior microtubules, can control their movement

Desmosomes

“buttons”, single points of attachment that connects adjacent cell’s cytoskeletons. Forms very strong connections

Tight junctions

Seal that closes gaps between cells to prevent leakage (not strong)

Gap junctions

Creates passageways between cells that facilitate communication between cells. Found in areas that require high levels of cohesive work between cells

Cytoplasm

Fluid contents of the cwell that contains the organelles (cellular machinery)

Cytosol

Intracellular fluid that contains dissolved nutrients, wastes, ions, and proteins

Organelles

Intracellular structures with specific functions

Mitochondria

Primary site of energy generation (cellular respiration). Has a double membrane:

• Outer membrane encloses the organelle

• Inner membrane folds to create cristae, which increase surface area

• Inside the inner membrane is the matrix

Endoplasmic Reticulum (two types)

1. Smooth ER - no ribosomes, synthesizes lipid-based substances and can be used for storage

2. Rough ER - has ribosomes, synthesizes proteins using RNA directions, sends proteins to Golgi Apparatus for final processing

Golgi Apparatus

Final site of processing materials to be secreted. Also stores materials for later release.

Transport vesicle

Transports materials from the ER to the Golgi Apparatus for final processing

Secretory vesicle (two types)

1. Takes materials from the Golgi Apparatus and releases them outside of the cell via exocytosis

2. Carries materials to the plasma membrane and merges with it to renew and repair the membrane

Lysosome

Digests materials and cleans up the cell, used by immune system to digest pathogens and bacteria, can eject wastes out of the cell, can digest the cell itself.

Free ribosome

Synthesizes proteins, retains proteins to carry out protein-dependent processes

Centrioles (centrosome)

Generates microtubules, produces movement, part of cytoskeleton

Cytoskeleton (parts)

1. Microtubules

2. Intermediate filaments

3. Microfilaments

Microtubules

Big proteins that make up cytoskeleton, can produce movement. Cell’s “muscles”

Intermediate filaments

Create the cell’s framework, cell shape, provides strength and structure. Cell’s “bones”

Microfilaments

Interacts with other filaments to create movement. Cells “muscles”

Nucleus

Region of DNA. Composed of:

• Nuclear envelope (nucleus’ double membrane)

• Nuclear pores - allows for selective movement of nutrients, RNA, and water

• Nucleoplasm - fluid within the nucleus

• Nucleolus - dense structure where ribosomes are assembled

• Chromosomes - long strings of DNA that are wound around proteins (histones)

Epithelial tissue characteristics

1. Cellularity - high, cells are tightly bound together

2. Polarity - cells are polar. have an apical side (exposed) and a bound side (basement membrane)

3. Regeneration - high, replaced rapidly

4. Vascularity - avascular

Endocrine glands

“ductless” glands that secrete their products (hormones) into the interstitial spaces then to the blood

Exocrine glands

glands that secrete their products into a duct

Secretion

Materials released from cells are typically usable (have a function). Released from cells to body cavity

Excretion

Materials released from cells are eliminated. Released from body cavity to outside the body

Holocrine

The entire cell is filled with sectetory products and is then shed