VT - Bio 1106 Final Exam

Hydrostatic Skeleton

fluid filled central cavity, muscles work against the fluid

Exoskeleton

rigid outer skeleton, arthropods such as crabs and insects, made of chitin

Endoskeletons

rigid internal elements, echinoderms and vertebrates, gives places for muscle attachments

Mesenchyme Cells

undifferentiated cells involved in the development of bone

Fibroblasts

produces collagen

Chondroblasts

immature form of chondrocytes, produces cartilage

Osteoblasts

immature form of osteocytes, produces and becomes bone

Osteoclasts

develop from white blood cells, involved in the removal and dissolving of bone

Epiphyses

widened end of the bone, where bones grow from

Bone Remodeling

the process of absorbing and adding bone due to mechanical stress or regulatory hormones

Ball-and-Socket

type of joint that allows for the most motion ex: hip, shoulder

Hinge

joint that allows only forward and backward movement ex: knee and elbow

Gliding Joint

joint that slides from one surface to the next ex: vertebrae in the back

Combination

joint that allows for both rotation an side to side movement ex: jaw

Flexor

hamstring, contraction of muscle bends the limb

Extensor

quads, contraction of the muscle straightens or extends the limb

tendon

attaches muscle to bone

Antagonist Muscle

paired group of extensor and felxor muscles that work to oppose each other

intercallated discs

sections of cardiac muscles that contract as a unit

Sarcomeres

the smallest unit of muscle contraction (z line to z line)

Acetylcholine

neurotransmitter released at neuro-muscular junctions that causes action potential to be sent down t-tubules; enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

tetanus

smooth, sustained muscular contractions

Summation

multiple stimuli applied before relaxation causing multiple spikes in muscle contraction

Fast Twitch

fewer capillaries, fewer mitochondria, less myoglobin, rapid generation of power (fermentation)

Slow Twitch

more capillaries, many mitochondria, high myoglobin, SUSTAINED ACTION/ENDURANCE, red fibers (aerobic respiration)

Basal Metabolic Rate

minimal amount of energy consumed at rest

calorie

the amount of energy needed to change the temperature of 1g of H2O by 1 degree celsius

Vitamins

organic molecules essential for the body, help to catalyze reactions

Minerals

inorganic molecules essential for the body

Essential Nutrient

a substance required for health but can not be produced by the body

Accessory organs of the Digestive Tract

liver, gallbladder, salivary glands, pancreas

Flow of the Digestive Tract

mechanical breakdown, chemical breakdown, absorption, excretion

Bolus

chewed/salivated food

Components of Saliva

water, mucous, salivary amylase, antibacterial compounds

Esophagus

muscular tube connecting the pharynx to the stomach (made up of both voluntary and smooth muscle)

Perisalsis

coordinated muscle movements of the bolus to the stomach through the relaxation and contraction of different sections of the esophagus

Leptin

produced in fat tissue, suppresses appetite, long term control of appetite

Ghrelin

produced in the stomach and increases appetite, short term control of appetite

Small Intestine

location of most absorption and digestion, consists of duodenum, jejunum, and iluem

Duodenum

enzymes from pancreas/gallbladder enter and help for the chemical breakdown of food

Jejunum

adapted for the absorption of nutrients from chemically broken down food

Microvilli

folds on the walls of the small intestine that help to increase surface area and maximize absorption

Brush Border Enzymes

enzymes produced by the microvilli that help to finish the process of chemical break down

Components of Pancreatic Juice

trypsin, chymotrypsin, pancreatic amylase, lipase, bicarbonate, DNAase, RNAase

Gallbladder

• Location of the storage of bile

• Injects bile into the duodenum BUT DOES NOT MAKE SECRETIONS

Colon

• Location of water, electrolyte, and vitamin K absorption

• Responsible for compacting feces

Cecum

the part of the digestive tract of animals that allows for the digestion of cellulose

Nonruminant Herbivore

simple stomach, long cecum, longer digestive tract to allow more time for cellulose to be broken down

Ruminant Herbivore

four chambered stomach to better breakdown cellulose, large rumen, long small and large intestines

Insectivore

short intestine and no cecum

Carnivore

short intestine and colon, small cecum, sometimes engage in caprophagy

Coprophagy

eating of feces to digest nutrients on the second passage of food

Parietal Cells

cells in the walls of the stomach that secrete HCl

Gastrin

response to protein, targets chief and parietal cells

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

response to fatty chyme, found in the duodenum, targets the gallbladder and pancreas for the release of bile and digestive enzymes

Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP)

response to fatty chyme, targets the stomach, release of digestive enzymes

Secretin

response to acids, targets the pancreas to release bicarbonate

Chief Cell

cell in the stomach that releases pepsinogen and chymosin

Circulatory System Goals

transportation, regulation, and protection

Plasma

water circulates formed elements, makes up the largest portion of the blood

Erythrocytes

red blood cells, contain hemoglobin that carries and binds oxygen, makes up 45% of the blood

Leukocytes

white blood cells, makes up less than 1% of the blood, responsible for protection against pathogens and invaders

Platelets

Responsible for blood clotting and protection

Formed Elements

living blood cells

Hematopoiesis

the conversion and making of formed elements in the bone marrow

Erythropoiesis

the creation of red blood cells

Erythropoietin

accelerate erythrocyte production and improves the delivery of oxygen

Blood Clotting

1) Vessel Walls Constrict

2) Platelets Stick to each other and the walls of the blood vessels

3) Enzymatic reactions are triggered by platelets, plasma factors and damaged tissue

4) Slowly dissolved clot so that it won't travel down and block the blood vessel

Open Circulatory System

no capillaries, no distinction between extracellular fluid and circulating fluid

Closed Circulatory System

has capillaries to join the pathway, blood + lymph

hemolymph

a fluid similar to blood in most invertebrates that circulates the body and is in direct contact with animal's internal body tissues

Fish circulation

1 atria, 1 ventricle, only one circuit for blood from gills to he rest of the body

Amphibian circulation

2 atria, 1 ventricle, two circuits for blood (pulmonary and systematic), still has the potential for mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood

Mammalian Circulation

2 atria, 2 ventricle, complete separation of the heart, oxygenated goes from left atria to left ventricle to the body to right atria to right ventricle to the lungs

Heart Contraction

1)Sinoatrial Node impulse (right)

2)Atria beat

3) Atrioventricular node impulse to Purkinjean fibers conduct signal through the septum

4)Ventricles beat

Systolic Blood Pressure

pressure in the blood vessels when ventricles contract

Diastolic Blood Pressure

pressure in the blood when ventricles are relaxed (between beats)

Arteries

carry blood away from the heart

pulmonary artery

carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart

Capillary

small vessels for oxygen, nutrient, carbon dioxide, and waste transfer, RESPONSIBLE FOR HEAT EXCHANGE bc of changes in blood flow

Lymph

fluid that has leaked out of the capillaries

Fick's Law

Rate of Diffusion = DA∆p/d

rate is inversely proportional with distance traveled across the two areas

Gills

specialized extensions of tissue that project into water and increase the surface area for diffusion of oxygen

Countercurrent Flow

maximizes the diffusion rate of oxygen by increasing the pressure difference, blood flows in the opposite direction of water creating a constant influx of oxygen

Amphibian breathing

positive pressure breathing by filling buccal cavity, closing nose and mouth, squeezing buccal cavity

Bird Respiration

endotherms with higher O2 requirement, 1 directional air flow through parabronchi, posterior air sacs fill with newly inhaled air, anterior air sacs fill with air leaving the lungs

Human Respiratory System

maximizes surface area and minimizes diffusion distance with alveoli and one cell layer thick capillaries

Inhalation

Stimulation of the diaphragm causes contraction and flattening allowing for the lungs to have more volume

Greater volume, lower pressure, air moves in

Exhalation

Diaphragm relaxes and reverses flattening out previously experienced

Less volume, greater pressure, air moves out

Hemoglobin

transport molecule for oxygen, can carry four O2 molecules at a time, low pH and high temperature reduces affinity of it for O2

Myoglobin

has a stronger affinity for O2 than hemoglobin, can supply additional oxygen to muscle cells, can only carry one molecule of O2

Transport of CO2

•Dissolved in plasma

•Bound to hemoglobin—attaches to the amino acid portion

•Bicarbonate CO2 converted by enzymes to bicarbonate

Osmolarity

molar concentration of solutes

Tonicity

the ability of a solution to change volume of the cell by osmosis

Hypertonic

shrink in fluid (solution has higher concentration than cell)

Hypotonic

expand in liquid (solution has less concentration than cell)

Osmoregulator

have adaptations to maintain an internal osmotic blance

Catabolism

breakdown of complex molecules, makes nitrogenous waste in urinary system

Nephron

main unit within the kidney

Glomerulus

filters blood for toxins, hormones, vitamins that are in excess