Thinking, Language, and MESH

Cognition

all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

• memory, problem solving, language, etc

Concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people used to organize and understand information

• similar to your idea of something

Prototype

the best, most typical, or average mental example of a specific category or concept

• the most perfect example

• ex. prototype of a bank robber is someone in a black mask with a bag of money

Algorithm

a methodical, step-by-step procedure or set of rules that guarantees a correct solution to a problem

• slow, safe, and methodical

• bottom up processing

Heuristic

a mental shortcut, "rule of thumb," or strategy that allows for quick decision-making and problem-solving

• an “educated guess”

• types= representative, availability, and anchoring

Insight

the sudden and often novel realization of a solution to a problem

• aha moment

Confirmation bias

the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses while ignoring or discounting contradictory evidence

• “cherry picking evidence”

Mental set

the cognitive tendency to approach a problem or situation in a specific way, usually employing methods that were successful in the past

• we repeat solutions that have worked in the past

Functional fixedness

a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in its traditional or intended way

• unable to think outside the box (you are stuck)

• opposite of convergent and divergent thinking

Divergent thought

a cognitive process used to generate creative, multiple, and unique solutions to an open-ended problem or question

• spreading out to find many possibilities

Representative heuristic

people judge the probability of an event or situation based on how closely it matches a typical mental prototype or stereotype

• using prototypes and ignoring other relevant data

• ex. because of the prototype of a bank robber no one would assume a grandma robbed the bank

Availability heuristic

people estimate the probability of events based on how easily examples come to mind

• bases things off the commonality of the outcomes

Overconfidence

the cognitive bias and tendency to be more confident than correct

• overestimating oneselves actual skill level

Belief bias

the tendency to judge the strength of arguments based on how plausible their conclusion is to the person, rather than how logically valid the argument actually is

• is the argument believable

Perseverance bias

the tendency to cling to one's initial beliefs or conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited or contradicted

Artificial intelligence

a subfield of computer science aimed at developing systems that simulate human cognitive processes, including learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and decision-making

Language

Complex system of communication that uses words or signs to convey thoughts, ideas, and emotion

Phoneme

A phoneme is the smallest distinctive sound unit in a language that can change the meaning of a word

• most basic linguistic sound

• about 44 in English

Morpheme

smallest meaningful units of language, including words, prefixes, and suffixes

Semantics

how we interpret and understand the meaning of language

• rules by which we derive meaning from language

Syntax

set of rules that govern how words are arranged to create meaningful sentences

• sentence structure

Motivation

feelings or ideas that cause us to act toward a goal

• need or desire that energizes or directs behavior toward a goal

Emotion

physiological arousal, cognitive appraisal, and expressive behaviors in response to personally significant events

Instinct

unlearned, complex, and biologically programmed behavior that follows a fixed pattern and is universal within a species

• ex. fight or flight response, babies rooting reflex

Drive-reduction theory

our behavior is motivated by the need to reduce internal tension or discomfort caused by unmet biological needs

• physiological need creates tension that is alleviated by an action

Yerkes-Dodson Law

performance improves with arousal up to an optimal point, after which further arousal decreases performance

Reciprocity norm

social rule that compels individuals to return favors or respond in kind to the actions of others

The over justification effect

offering an expected external incentive (such as money, prizes, or praise) for an activity that someone already enjoys reduces their intrinsic motivation to perform that activity

• you like something intrinsically but an extrinsic motivation makes you not like it any more

Homeostasis

self-regulating processes that keep physiological and psychological systems in balance.

• maintaining a constant internal state

Extrinsic motivation

behavior that is driven by external rewards or pressures rather than by internal satisfaction or personal interest

• ex. you want to work a job to get paid (not because you love what you do)

Intrinsic motivation

behavior driven by internal rewards such as personal satisfaction, enjoyment, or interest in the activity itself, rather than by external rewards or pressures

• ex. you work a job because you love what you do (not just because you want to get paid

Sensation-seeking theory

tendency to pursue novel, intense, and thrilling experiences to increase arousal and stimulation

• why? depends on perspective

Set point

pre‑determined weight range that a person’s body naturally tends to maintain through internal physiological processes

Basic metabolic rate

number of calories required to keep your body functioning while at rest

• determines a person’s set rate

• “metabolism”

“Broaden and build” theory of emotion

positive emotions expand our thinking and behaviors, helping us build lasting personal resources, while negative emotions narrow focus to address immediate threats

• being in a positive mood can help you make tools to deal with negative emotions

Sexual Response Cycle

model that describes the physiological responses that occur during sexual activity

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

body’s three-stage physiological response to prolonged stress, consisting of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

Type A

behavioral pattern marked by high competitiveness, a constant sense of urgency, impatience, and a tendency towards hostility

• high stress levels → declined health later

Type B

refers to an individual who is generally relaxed, easygoing, and less prone to stress

• characterized by low levels of competitiveness, frustration, and aggressiveness

Conflict Theory

According to Lewin, people are constantly faced with situations where they must choose between competing goals, desires, or actions, and these conflicts can be categorized into three main types

1. Approach- Approach (2 good things you want)

2. approach- avoidance (when a thing is both good and bad)

3. avoidance- avoidance (2 bad things → best of the worst)

“Tend and befriend” theory

proposes that humans, especially females, respond to stress by nurturing others (tending) and seeking social support (befriending) as an alternative to the fight-or-flight response

“Problem-focused coping”

stress management strategy that involves taking direct action to address the root cause of a stressor

• coping with a problem by trying to solve the problem

“Emotion-focused coping”

managing the emotional response to stress rather than directly addressing the stressor itself