AP Psych A-F

6 core virtues

A framework in positive psychology identifying six universally valued traits: wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.

absolute threshold

The minimum intensity of a stimulus that an individual can detect 50% of the time.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, learning, and memory; deficiency is linked to Alzheimer’s disease.

Achievement Test

A standardized test that measures knowledge or skills in a particular subject, often used in educational assessment.

acquisition

The initial stage in classical conditioning when a neutral stimulus begins to trigger a conditioned response.

Action potential

A brief electrical charge that travels down a neuron’s axon, transmitting signals to other neurons or muscles.

activation synthesis theory

A theory suggesting dreams result from the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity during sleep.

actor-observer bias

The tendency to attribute one’s own actions to external circumstances while attributing others’ actions to their character.

adrenaline

A hormone and neurotransmitter that prepares the body for a fight-or-flight response by increasing heart rate and energy levels.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Traumatic events during childhood, such as abuse or neglect, that can have long-term negative effects on health and behavior.

Agonist

A substance that mimics or enhances the effects of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor.

agreeableness

A personality trait characterized by trust, kindness, and cooperation, part of the Big Five personality traits.

algorithm

A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem that guarantees a correct solution if followed correctly.

All-or-none principle

A principle stating that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all once the threshold is met.

Altruism

Selfless concern for the well-being of others, often at a personal cost.

Alzheimer’s Disease

A progressive neurological disorder characterized by memory loss, cognitive decline, and changes in behavior, associated with plaques and tangles in the brain.

amygdala

A brain structure involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression.

Anonymity

The state of being unknown or unidentifiable, which can influence behavior, particularly in online and group settings.

anorexia

An eating disorder characterized by extreme restriction of food intake, intense fear of gaining weight, and a distorted body image.

Antagonist

A substance that blocks or inhibits the action of a neurotransmitter by preventing it from binding to its receptor.

anterograde amnesia

The inability to form new memories following a brain injury, while past memories remain intact.

anxious/ambivalent attachment

A form of insecure attachment where individuals are overly dependent on relationships but also fear abandonment.

aphasia

A language disorder caused by brain damage, affecting speech production or comprehension.

Aptitude Test

A test designed to measure an individual's potential to learn new skills rather than assessing knowledge already acquired.

arousal theory

A theory of motivation stating that individuals seek an optimal level of arousal to perform effectively on tasks.

Assimilation vs accommodation

Assimilation involves incorporating new experiences into existing mental frameworks, while accommodation involves altering frameworks to fit new information.

Attitude

A psychological evaluation of people, objects, or ideas that influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

authoritarian parent

A parenting style characterized by strict rules, high expectations, and little warmth or responsiveness.

authoritative parent

A parenting style that combines high expectations with warmth and responsiveness, fostering independence and reasoning.

automatic processing

Processing that occurs unconsciously and requires minimal effort; skills and tasks.

Autonomic nervous system

A division of the nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate, digestion, and respiration.

Effortful processing

Encoding infornation through active attention.

avoidant attachment

A form of insecure attachment where individuals avoid close relationships and struggle with emotional intimacy.

Axon

The long fiber of a neuron that transmits electrical signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Babinski reflex

A reflex in infants where the toes fan out when the sole of the foot is stroked, indicating normal neurological development.

behavioral perspective

A psychological approach that focuses on observable behaviors and the influence of the environment on learning.

belief perseverance

The tendency to maintain a belief even when confronted with contradictory evidence.

bimodal distribution

A statistical distribution with two distinct peaks, indicating two prevalent values or categories.

binocular cues

Depth perception cues requiring both eyes; include retinal disparity (the slight difference between the images seen by each eye) and convergence (the inward movement of the eyes when focusing on close objects).

biological perspective

A psychological approach emphasizing the influence of genetics, brain structures, and neurotransmitters on behavior.

biological preparedness

The tendency for certain associations (such as fear of snakes) to be more easily learned due to evolutionary survival advantages.

blind spot

The part of the retina where the optic nerve exits, lacking photoreceptors, resulting in an area of no visual perception.

blindsight

A condition where individuals with damage to the visual cortex can respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them.

boredom susceptibility

A personality trait characterized by a tendency to become easily bored and seek novel stimulation.

bottom-up processing

A type of information processing where perception begins with sensory input before higher cognitive functions interpret it.

brain plasticity

The brain’s ability to change and adapt by forming new neural connections, particularly after injury or learning experiences.

broaden and build theory of emotion

A theory suggesting that positive emotions expand cognitive and behavioral resources, leading to resilience and personal growth.

Broca’s area

A region in the frontal lobe responsible for speech production; damage can result in aphasia, impairing speech ability.

bulimia

An eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging behaviors such as vomiting, excessive exercise, or laxative use.

Bystander effect

The phenomenon in which individuals are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present due to diffusion of responsibility.

Cannon-Bard theory

A theory of emotion proposing that physiological responses and emotional experiences occur simultaneously rather than sequentially.

Case study

A research method involving an in-depth examination of an individual or small group to gain insights into psychological phenomena.

Central nervous system

The brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing sensory information and coordinating bodily responses.

Central route to persuasion

A method of persuasion that relies on logical arguments and evidence, requiring deep processing and careful consideration.

cerebral cortex

The outer layer of the brain responsible for higher cognitive functions such as perception, reasoning, and decision-making.

change blindness

Failing to notice changes in a visual scene.

inattentional blindness

Failing to see unexpected stimuli when attention is directed elsewhere.

circadian rhythm

The biological clock that regulates bodily functions, such as the sleep-wake cycle, on a roughly 24-hour schedule.

classical conditioning

A learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, triggering a conditioned response.

cochlea

A spiral-shaped structure in the inner ear that converts sound waves into neural signals; the basilar membrane contains hair cells that detect different sound frequencies.

Cocktail Party Phenomenon/selective attention

The ability to focus on a specific auditory stimulus while filtering out background noise, such as hearing one's name in a crowded room.

Coercion

The practice of forcing someone to act against their will, often through threats, intimidation, or undue pressure.

cognitive dissonance

The psychological discomfort that occurs when a person holds conflicting beliefs or attitudes, often leading to attitude or behavior change to reduce discomfort.

cognitive map

A mental representation of one’s spatial environment, such as being able to navigate a familiar city without a map.

cognitive perspective

A psychological approach that focuses on how people process, store, and retrieve information, emphasizing problem-solving, memory, and decision-making.

Collective unconscious

Carl Jung’s theory that humans share a set of inherited memories and symbols (archetypes) that influence behavior and personality.

concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people used to simplify and categorize the world.

conditioned response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus after it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after repeated association with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response.

conduction deafness

A type of hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea, such as issues with the eardrum or ossicles.

cones and fovea

Cones are photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision, while the fovea is the central part of the retina with the highest concentration of cones, providing sharp vision.

Confidentiality

The ethical and legal duty to protect participants' private information in research and therapy.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Conformity (include normative and informational)

Normative conformity: Changing behavior to fit in with a group due to social pressure. Informational conformity: Adopting the group’s beliefs because one assumes they have better knowledge.

Confounding variable

An outside factor that influences both the independent and dependent variables, potentially distorting research findings.

conscientiousness

A personality trait characterized by self-discipline, responsibility, and organization, part of the Big Five personality traits.

consolidation theory

The idea that new information must be processed and stabilized in memory through neural changes before becoming long-term memory.

constructive memory

The process in which memories are influenced by perceptions, experiences, and expectations, sometimes leading to inaccurate recollections.

context-dependent memory

The tendency to recall information more easily when in the same physical or emotional context in which it was learned.

continuous reinforcement

A reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is rewarded every time it occurs, leading to fast learning but quick extinction if reinforcement stops.

Control group

In an experiment, the group that does not receive the independent variable and serves as a baseline for comparison.

convenience sampling

A non-random sampling method where participants are selected based on availability and ease of access rather than random selection.

convergent thinking

Narrowing down multiple possibilities to find a single correct solution (e.g., standardized tests).

corpus callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres, allowing them to communicate.

Correlation coefficient

A numerical measure of the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to +1.

correlation (include positive and negative)

Positive correlation: As one variable increases, the other also increases. Negative correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases.

creativity

The ability to generate new, original ideas or solutions to problems.

critical period

A specific time in development when certain skills or abilities must be acquired for normal development to occur.

cross-sectional study

A research method that compares individuals of different ages or demographics at a single point in time.

crystallized intelligence

The accumulated knowledge and skills gained over time, which tend to remain stable or improve with age.

Debriefing

A post-experiment discussion with participants to explain the study’s purpose, reveal any deception, and address ethical concerns.

defense mechanisms

Unconscious psychological strategies used to protect the ego from anxiety or distress, identified in Freudian theory.

deindividuation

A psychological state in which people in a group lose self-awareness and accountability, often leading to impulsive behavior.

dementia

A decline in cognitive function, including memory loss and impaired reasoning, often due to neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s.

Dendrite

The branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.

denial

A defense mechanism in which a person refuses to accept reality or facts that cause anxiety.

Dependent variable (DV)

The variable in an experiment that is measured to determine the effect of the independent variable.

depressants

A category of drugs that slow down the central nervous system, including alcohol, benzodiazepines, and barbiturates.

Descriptive Statistics

Statistical techniques used to summarize and describe data, such as mean, median, and standard deviation.

dichromatism vs monochromatism

Dichromatism: Color blindness where individuals can perceive only two of the three primary colors. Monochromatism: Total color blindness, where a person sees only shades of gray.