AP Psych A-F
6 core virtues – A framework in positive psychology identifying six universally valued traits: wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
absolute threshold – The minimum intensity of a stimulus that an individual can detect 50% of the time.
Acetylcholine – A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, learning, and memory; its deficiency is linked to Alzheimer’s disease.
Achievement Test – A standardized test that measures knowledge or skills in a particular subject, often used in educational assessment.
acquisition – The initial stage in classical conditioning when a neutral stimulus begins to trigger a conditioned response.
Action potential – A brief electrical charge that travels down a neuron’s axon, transmitting signals to other neurons or muscles.
activation synthesis theory – A theory that suggests dreams result from the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity during sleep.
actor-observer bias – The tendency to attribute one’s own actions to external circumstances while attributing others’ actions to their character.
adrenaline – A hormone and neurotransmitter that prepares the body for a fight-or-flight response by increasing heart rate and energy levels.
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) – Traumatic events during childhood, such as abuse or neglect, that can have long-term negative effects on health and behavior.
Agonist – A substance that mimics or enhances the effects of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor.
agreeableness – A personality trait characterized by trust, kindness, and cooperation, part of the Big Five personality traits.
algorithm – A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem that guarantees a correct solution if followed correctly.
All-or-none principle – A principle stating that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all once the threshold is met.
Altruism – Selfless concern for the well-being of others, often at a personal cost.
Alzheimer’s Disease – A progressive neurological disorder characterized by memory loss, cognitive decline, and changes in behavior, associated with plaques and tangles in the brain.
amygdala – A brain structure involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression.
Anonymity – The state of being unknown or unidentifiable, which can influence behavior, particularly in online and group settings.
anorexia – An eating disorder characterized by extreme restriction of food intake, intense fear of gaining weight, and a distorted body image.
Antagonist – A substance that blocks or inhibits the action of a neurotransmitter by preventing it from binding to its receptor.
anterograde amnesia – The inability to form new memories following a brain injury, while past memories remain intact.
anxious/ambivalent attachment – A form of insecure attachment where individuals are overly dependent on relationships but also fear abandonment.
aphasia – A language disorder caused by brain damage, affecting speech production or comprehension.
Aptitude Test – A test designed to measure an individual's potential to learn new skills rather than assessing knowledge already acquired.
arousal theory – A theory of motivation stating that individuals seek an optimal level of arousal to perform effectively on tasks.
Assimilation vs accommodation – Assimilation involves incorporating new experiences into existing mental frameworks, while accommodation involves altering frameworks to fit new information.
Attitude – A psychological evaluation of people, objects, or ideas that influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
authoritarian parent – A parenting style characterized by strict rules, high expectations, and little warmth or responsiveness.
authoritative parent – A parenting style that combines high expectations with warmth and responsiveness, fostering independence and reasoning.
automatic vs effortful processing – Automatic processing occurs unconsciously and requires minimal effort, while effortful processing requires active attention and conscious effort.
Autonomic nervous system – A division of the nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate, digestion, and respiration.
avoidant attachment – A form of insecure attachment where individuals avoid close relationships and struggle with emotional intimacy.
Axon – The long fiber of a neuron that transmits electrical signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
Babinski reflex – A reflex in infants where the toes fan out when the sole of the foot is stroked, indicating normal neurological development.
behavioral perspective – A psychological approach that focuses on observable behaviors and the influence of the environment on learning.
belief perseverance – The tendency to maintain a belief even when confronted with contradictory evidence.
bimodal distribution – A statistical distribution with two distinct peaks, indicating two prevalent values or categories.
binocular cues (include retinal disparity and convergence) – Depth perception cues requiring both eyes:
Retinal disparity: The slight difference between the images seen by each eye, which helps determine depth.
Convergence: The inward movement of the eyes when focusing on close objects.
biological perspective – A psychological approach emphasizing the influence of genetics, brain structures, and neurotransmitters on behavior.
biological preparedness – The tendency for certain associations (such as fear of snakes) to be more easily learned due to evolutionary survival advantages.
blind spot – The part of the retina where the optic nerve exits, lacking photoreceptors, resulting in an area of no visual perception.
blindsight – A condition where individuals with damage to the visual cortex can respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them.
boredom susceptibility – A personality trait characterized by a tendency to become easily bored and seek novel stimulation.
bottom-up processing – A type of information processing where perception begins with sensory input before higher cognitive functions interpret it.
brain plasticity – The brain’s ability to change and adapt by forming new neural connections, particularly after injury or learning experiences.
broaden and build theory of emotion – A theory suggesting that positive emotions expand cognitive and behavioral resources, leading to resilience and personal growth.
Broca’s area – A region in the frontal lobe responsible for speech production; damage can result in Broca’s aphasia, impairing speech ability.
bulimia – An eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging behaviors such as vomiting, excessive exercise, or laxative use.
Bystander effect – The phenomenon in which individuals are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present due to diffusion of responsibility.
Cannon-Bard theory – A theory of emotion proposing that physiological responses and emotional experiences occur simultaneously rather than sequentially.
Case study – A research method involving an in-depth examination of an individual or small group to gain insights into psychological phenomena.
Central nervous system – The brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing sensory information and coordinating bodily responses.
Central route to persuasion – A method of persuasion that relies on logical arguments and evidence, requiring deep processing and careful consideration.
cerebral cortex – The outer layer of the brain responsible for higher cognitive functions such as perception, reasoning, and decision-making.
change blindness and inattentional blindness –
Change blindness: Failing to notice changes in a visual scene.
Inattentional blindness: Failing to see unexpected stimuli when attention is directed elsewhere.
circadian rhythm – The biological clock that regulates bodily functions, such as the sleep-wake cycle, on a roughly 24-hour schedule.
classical conditioning – A learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, triggering a conditioned response.
cochlea (include basilar membrane) – A spiral-shaped structure in the inner ear that converts sound waves into neural signals; the basilar membrane contains hair cells that detect different sound frequencies.
Cocktail Party Phenomenon/selective attention – The ability to focus on a specific auditory stimulus while filtering out background noise, such as hearing one's name in a crowded room.
Coercion – The practice of forcing someone to act against their will, often through threats, intimidation, or undue pressure.
cognitive dissonance – The psychological discomfort that occurs when a person holds conflicting beliefs or attitudes, often leading to attitude or behavior change to reduce discomfort.
cognitive map – A mental representation of one’s spatial environment, such as being able to navigate a familiar city without a map.
cognitive perspective – A psychological approach that focuses on how people process, store, and retrieve information, emphasizing problem-solving, memory, and decision-making.
Collective unconscious (include archetypes) – Carl Jung’s theory that humans share a set of inherited memories and symbols (archetypes) that influence behavior and personality.
concept – A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people used to simplify and categorize the world.
conditioned response (CR) – A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus after it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
conditioned stimulus (CS) – A previously neutral stimulus that, after repeated association with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response.
conduction deafness – A type of hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea, such as issues with the eardrum or ossicles.
cones and fovea – Cones are photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision, while the fovea is the central part of the retina with the highest concentration of cones, providing sharp vision.
Confidentiality – The ethical and legal duty to protect participants' private information in research and therapy.
Confirmation bias – The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.
Conformity (include normative and informational) –
Normative conformity: Changing behavior to fit in with a group due to social pressure.
Informational conformity: Adopting the group’s beliefs because one assumes they have better knowledge.
Confounding variable (aka Third Variable Problem) – An outside factor that influences both the independent and dependent variables, potentially distorting research findings.
conscientiousness – A personality trait characterized by self-discipline, responsibility, and organization, part of the Big Five personality traits.
consolidation theory – The idea that new information must be processed and stabilized in memory through neural changes before becoming long-term memory.
constructive memory – The process in which memories are influenced by perceptions, experiences, and expectations, sometimes leading to inaccurate recollections.
context-dependent memory – The tendency to recall information more easily when in the same physical or emotional context in which it was learned.
continuous reinforcement – A reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is rewarded every time it occurs, leading to fast learning but quick extinction if reinforcement stops.
Control group – In an experiment, the group that does not receive the independent variable and serves as a baseline for comparison.
convenience sampling – A non-random sampling method where participants are selected based on availability and ease of access rather than random selection.
convergent vs divergent thinking –
Convergent thinking: Narrowing down multiple possibilities to find a single correct solution (e.g., standardized tests).
Divergent thinking: Generating multiple unique solutions to a problem, associated with creativity.
corpus callosum – The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres, allowing them to communicate.
Correlation coefficient – A numerical measure of the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to +1.
correlation (include positive and negative) –
Positive correlation: As one variable increases, the other also increases.
Negative correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases.
creativity – The ability to generate new, original ideas or solutions to problems.
critical period – A specific time in development when certain skills or abilities must be acquired for normal development to occur.
cross-sectional study – A research method that compares individuals of different ages or demographics at a single point in time.
crystallized intelligence – The accumulated knowledge and skills gained over time, which tend to remain stable or improve with age.
Debriefing – A post-experiment discussion with participants to explain the study’s purpose, reveal any deception, and address ethical concerns.
defense mechanisms – Unconscious psychological strategies used to protect the ego from anxiety or distress, identified in Freudian theory.
deindividuation – A psychological state in which people in a group lose self-awareness and accountability, often leading to impulsive behavior.
dementia – A decline in cognitive function, including memory loss and impaired reasoning, often due to neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s.
Dendrite – The branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.
denial – A defense mechanism in which a person refuses to accept reality or facts that cause anxiety.
Dependent variable (DV) – The variable in an experiment that is measured to determine the effect of the independent variable.
depressants – A category of drugs that slow down the central nervous system, including alcohol, benzodiazepines, and barbiturates.
Descriptive Statistics – Statistical techniques used to summarize and describe data, such as mean, median, and standard deviation.
dichromatism vs monochromatism –
Dichromatism: Color blindness where individuals can perceive only two of the three primary colors.
Monochromatism: Total color blindness, where a person sees only shades of gray.
difference threshold (JND - Just Noticeable Difference) – The minimum change in a stimulus that a person can detect 50% of the time.
Diffusion of responsibility – The tendency for individuals to feel less responsible for taking action when others are present, contributing to the bystander effect.
Directionality Problem – In correlational research, the issue of not knowing whether variable A causes variable B or vice versa.
discrimination – In psychology, the ability to distinguish between different stimuli; in social contexts, the unfair treatment of individuals based on group membership.
displacement – A defense mechanism in which an individual redirects negative emotions toward a less threatening target.
display rules – Cultural norms that dictate how and when emotions should be expressed.
dispositional attribution – Explaining behavior based on internal traits or personality rather than external factors.
door-in-the-face phenomenon – A persuasion technique where a large request is initially made (and likely rejected), followed by a smaller request, which seems more reasonable in comparison.
Dopamine – A neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, motivation, reward, and movement; imbalances are linked to conditions like Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia.
Double-blind procedure – An experimental design in which both the participants and the researchers do not know who is receiving the treatment or placebo, reducing bias.
drive-reduction theory – A motivational theory suggesting that biological needs create a state of tension (drive), which motivates behavior to satisfy the need.
ecological systems theory – A theory by Urie Bronfenbrenner that describes human development as influenced by multiple environmental systems, including the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
Effect Size – A statistical measure that quantifies the magnitude of a relationship or the impact of an intervention in research studies.
ego – In Freudian psychoanalysis, the part of the personality that mediates between the desires of the id and the moral constraints of the superego, operating on the reality principle.
eidetic memory – A rare ability to recall detailed images with high precision, often referred to as photographic memory.
elaboration likelihood model – A theory of persuasion suggesting that people process messages through either a central route (deep, logical consideration) or a peripheral route (superficial cues).
electroencephalogram (EEG) – A test that measures electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp, commonly used in sleep and epilepsy studies.
Elkind’s theory of adolescent egocentrism (include imaginary audience and personal fable) –
Imaginary audience: The belief that others are constantly watching and judging oneself.
Personal fable: The belief that one's experiences are unique and that one is invulnerable.
emotion-focused coping – A strategy for managing stress by focusing on emotions rather than the root cause of the problem, such as seeking social support.
emotional stability (neuroticism) – A personality trait from the Big Five model; low neuroticism (high emotional stability) indicates calmness, while high neuroticism suggests emotional instability.
Encoding – The process of converting sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory.
Endocrine system – The body's chemical communication system, consisting of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream.
Endorphins – Neurotransmitters that reduce pain and boost pleasure, often called the body’s natural painkillers.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage Theory – A theory proposing eight stages of human development, each characterized by a central psychological conflict (e.g., trust vs. mistrust in infancy).
ethnocentrism – The tendency to evaluate other cultures based on the standards of one’s own culture, often leading to bias and prejudice.
Eugenics – A now-discredited movement aimed at improving the genetic quality of human populations, often associated with forced sterilization and discrimination.
eustress vs distress –
Eustress: Positive stress that enhances motivation and performance.
Distress: Negative stress that causes anxiety and impairs functioning.
evolutionary perspective – A psychological approach that explains behaviors in terms of their adaptive survival value and evolutionary history.
Excitatory effect – When a neurotransmitter increases the likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential.
executive functions – Cognitive processes, including planning, problem-solving, and impulse control, regulated by the prefrontal cortex.
Experiment – A research method in which an independent variable is manipulated to observe its effect on a dependent variable, establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
Experimental group – The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or independent variable.
experimenter bias – When a researcher's expectations or beliefs unconsciously influence the outcome of a study.
explanatory style: optimistic vs pessimistic style –
Optimistic style: Attributing negative events to external, unstable, and specific causes.
Pessimistic style: Attributing negative events to internal, stable, and global causes.
explicit memory vs implicit memory –
Explicit memory: Conscious, intentional recall of facts and experiences (e.g., remembering a historical date).
Implicit memory: Unconscious memory for skills and conditioned responses (e.g., riding a bike).
extinction – In conditioning, the weakening of a learned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
extrinsic vs intrinsic motivation –
Extrinsic motivation: Performing a task for external rewards or to avoid punishment.
Intrinsic motivation: Performing a task for its inherent enjoyment or personal fulfillment.
Factor analysis – A statistical technique that identifies clusters of related variables, often used in intelligence and personality research.
factors in attraction – Psychological and social factors influencing romantic or social attraction, including physical attractiveness, similarity, reciprocity, and proximity.
false-consensus effect – The tendency to overestimate how much others share one’s beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors.
falsifiable hypothesis – A scientific hypothesis that can be tested and potentially disproven.
fetal alcohol syndrome – A condition caused by alcohol exposure in the womb, leading to cognitive impairments and physical abnormalities.
fixed mindset vs growth mindset –
Fixed mindset: The belief that intelligence and abilities are static traits.
Growth mindset: The belief that intelligence and abilities can be developed through effort.
fixed-interval schedule – A reinforcement schedule in which rewards are given after a fixed amount of time (e.g., a paycheck every two weeks).
fixed-ratio schedule – A reinforcement schedule where a reward is given after a fixed number of responses (e.g., earning a reward for every 10 sales).
fluid intelligence – The ability to reason quickly and solve novel problems, typically peaking in young adulthood.
Flynn Effect – The observed increase in IQ scores over generations, possibly due to improved education, nutrition, and technology.
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) – A brain imaging technique that measures blood flow to indicate brain activity during tasks.
foot-in-the-door phenomenon – A persuasion technique where agreeing to a small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a larger request later.
forgetting curve – A theory by Ebbinghaus that describes how memory retention declines rapidly at first, then levels off over time.
framing – The way an issue is presented or worded, which can influence decisions and perceptions.
frequency theory – A theory of auditory perception stating that the rate of nerve impulses matches the frequency of a tone, explaining pitch perception.
frontal lobes – The brain region responsible for reasoning, planning, movement, and decision-making.
functional fixedness – The tendency to perceive objects as having only their traditional use, limiting problem-solving abilities.
fundamental attribution error – The tendency to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational influences when explaining others' behavior.