AP Human Geography Unit 6 Cities and Urban Land-Use Patterns and Processes

Factors Driving Urbanization

Agricultural surplus, rise of social stratification and a leadership class or urban elite, and job specialization.

Urbanization

The process through which cities develop and expand, often characterized by the movement of people from rural to urban areas.

Percent Urban

The proportion of a population living in urban areas, usually expressed as a percentage.

Site

The physical characteristics of a place, including its location, topography, and available resources, which influence its development and function.

Situation

The location of a place relative to its surrounding environment and the spatial context that influences its significance and accessibility.

City-State

A sovereign state that consists of a city and its dependent territories. City-states often have their own government and are independent from larger political entities.

Urban Hearth

A geographic area where urban culture originated, characterized by the development of agriculture and early cities that influenced surrounding regions.

The 4 Urban Hearths

Tigris-Euphrates Valley (Mesopotamia), Nile River Valley and Nile Delta, Indus River Valley, and Huang-He floodplain.

City

A higher-density area with territory inside officially recognized political boundaries.

Metropolitan Area (Metro Area)

A collection of adjacent cities economically connected, across which population density is high and continuous.

Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA)

Consists of a city of at least 50,000 people, the county in which it is located, and adjacent counties that have a high degree of social and economic intergration, or connection with the urban core.

Micropolitan Statistical Areas

Cities of more than 10,000 inhabitants but less than 50,000, the county in which they are located, and surrounding counties with a high degree of integration.

Nodal Region

An area defined by a central hub or focus, typically dominated by a particular activity or function, with surrounding areas linked through economic, social, or cultural ties.

Social Heterogeneity

Attributes of a population, including age, gender, race, and socioeconomic status, that influence its growth and composition.

Borchert’s Transportation Model

A theory that explains the evolution of American cities based on the development of transportation modes, identifying five distinct epochs that shaped urban growth and structure.

Sail-Wagon Epoch (1790-1930)

The first epoch in Borchert's Transportation Model, characterized by reliance on water and horse-drawn vehicles for transportation, which limited urban growth to areas near navigable waterways.

Iron Horse Epoch (1830-1870)

The second epoch in Borchert's Transportation Model, marked by the expansion of railroads, which facilitated rapid growth and connectivity of cities, encouraging urban development further inland.

Steel Rail Epoch (1870-1920)

The third epoch in Borchert's Transportation Model, characterized by the dominance of steel railroads that allowed for increased industrialization and mobility, connecting cities more efficiently and leading to urban sprawl.

Auto-Air-Amenity Epoch (1920-1970)

The fourth epoch in Borchert's Transportation Model, characterized by the rise of automobiles and air travel, which transformed urban landscapes, enabled suburbanization, and increased reliance on highways and airports.

Pedesrtrian Cities

The earliest form of urban settlements, where the design and infrastructure were primarily oriented towards pedestrians. This epoch emphasized compactness and the accessibility of public spaces, shaping the initial layout of cities.

Streetcar Suburbs

The urban areas developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that were primarily accessible by streetcars. This phenomenon facilitated the growth of suburban neighborhoods, connecting residents to urban centers while promoting lower-density living.

Suburbanization

The process of population movement from urban areas to suburban areas, often resulting in the expansion of suburban neighborhoods and a decline in urban density.

Causes of Suburbanization

Economic expansion, greater purchasing power for many families, the growth of a car-centered lifestyle, and the governments construction of vast system of new hihways that allowed workers to commute from their city jobs to suburban homes.

Federal Housing Administration (FHA)

Provided mortgage loans for families to move to the suburbs, which were newly zones for single-family housing.

Sprawl

The uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into rural land, leading to low-density development and increased reliance on automobiles.

Reasons for Sprawl

Growth of suburbs, lower land costs in suburbs compared to inner cities, lower density single family housing, weak planning laws, and the continuing growth of car culture.

Leap-Frog Development

A type of urban development where new construction occurs far from the existing urban areas, resulting in gaps of undeveloped land between neighborhoods.

Boomburbs

Rapidly growing suburban cities that experience significant population increases while maintaining characteristics of urban areas.

Edge Cities

Suburban areas that develop near major transportation routes, characterized by a concentration of business, shopping, and entertainment outside traditional downtown areas.

Counter-Urbanization (Deurbanization)

The process of population movement away from urban areas to rural or suburban areas, often leading to a decline in urban populations and changes in land use patterns.

Exurbs

Regions beyond the suburbs that are residential and often affluent, where people commute to cities for work. Many migrants relocate to these areas.

Reurbanization

The process of population movement back into urban areas after a period of decline or out-migration, often accompanied by urban renewal and development.

Megacities

Large cities with populations exceeding 10 million, characterized by their significant economic, political, and cultural influence.

Metacities

Cities with populations over 20 million, often experiencing rapid urbanization and major infrastructural challenges.

Megalopolis

A sprawling urban area that encompasses several large cities and their suburbs, typically characterized by a high degree of interconnectedness and economic integration.

Conurbation

An extended urban area formed by the merging of multiple cities or towns, creating a continuous metropolitan region.

World Cities (Global Cities)

Cities of significant international influence, often serving as economic, cultural, and political centers. They play a crucial role in global connectivity and decision-making.

Urban Hierarchy

A system of categorizing cities based on their size, population, and service functions, typically organized from small towns to large metropolitan areas.

Nodal Cities

Cities that serve as important economic or transportation hubs, connecting various regions and facilitating trade and travel.

Rank-Size Rule

A principle that states that the population of a city is inversely proportional to its rank in the urban hierarchy, where the nth largest city has a population that is 1/n of the largest city.

Higher-Order Services

Services that require a larger market area and population, providing specialized and high-level functions that are not available in lower-order services.

Lower-Order Services

Services that require a smaller market area and population, offering basic and essential functions that are widely available.

Primate City

A city that is significantly larger than any other city in the country, often serving as the cultural, economic, and political center.

Gravity Model

A model that predicts the interaction between two cities based on their population size and the distance between them, illustrating that larger cities attract more people and services.

Christaller’s Central Place Theory

A geographic theory that explains the size and distribution of human settlements in a hierarchical order based on their functions and services, identifying a central place that provides goods and services to surrounding areas.

Central Place

A location where people go to receive goods and services.

Market Area

Zone that contains people who will purchase goods or services, and surrounds each central place.

Hexagonal Hinterlands

Areas that extend around central places, forming hexagonal shapes to optimize service distribution and market reach.

Village

A small settlement that typically includes a group of homes, shops, and local services, serving the surrounding rural area and often functioning as a central place for nearby farms.

Town

A populated area larger than a village, often featuring a variety of services, businesses, and infrastructure that support both the local community and surrounding rural areas.

Threshold

The minimum market size or population needed for a business or service to remain viable and profitable, influencing location decisions in urban planning.

Range

The maximum distance consumers are willing to travel to purchase a good or service, and is often used to determine optimal locations for businesses.

Functional Zonation

The division of a city into distinct regions or zones that serve specific purposes, reflecting how different areas are utilized within the urban space.

Central Business District (CBD)

The commercial and business center of a city, characterized by high land values, dense concentration of retail and office buildings, and significant economic activity.

Bid-Rent Theory

A geographic theory that explains how the price and demand for real estate change as the distance from the Central Business District increases. It depicts the trade-off between land cost and accessibility.

Industrial Zone (Commercial Zone)

The zone outside the CBD that is dedicated to industry.

Residential Zone

A designated area within a city primarily for housing and dwelling purposes, often differing in density and type of housing.

North American City Models

Concentric zone model, sector model, and multiple-nuclei model.

Burgess’s Concentric Zone Model

A model that proposes urban land use is arranged in concentric rings around a central business district, with each ring representing different types of land use and socio-economic groups.

Hoyt’s Sector Model

A model that illustrates urban land use in sectors or wedges radiating out from the central business district, emphasizing the impact of transportation routes on residential and industrial development.

Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei-Model

A model that suggests urban areas have multiple centers, or nuclei, around which different types of land use cluster, indicating that cities may develop in a more complex pattern than traditional models suggest.

Galactic City Model

A model that describes urban development in a decentralized manner, where the city is organized around a series of edge cities, emphasizing the role of transportation and suburbanization in shaping urban spaces.

European Cities

Cities characterized by historic architecture, compact urban form, and mixed land uses, often influenced by cultural factors and a strong public transport system.

Middle Eastern and Islamic Cities

Urban areas that reflect Islamic architecture, often featuring a central mosque, winding streets, and traditional markets, shaped by cultural and religious influences.

Griffin-Ford Latin American City Model

A model showing Latin American cities with a dominant CBD, a commercial spine leading to wealthy areas, and peripheral squatter settlements.

Commercial Spine

A linear pattern of commercial development that extends from the central business district (CBD) into the wealthier residential areas, serving as a crucial axis for economic activity.

Periferico

The outer ring of a Latin American city characterized by poverty, informal housing, and limited services.

Shantytowns

Informal settlements on the outskirts of cities, often lacking basic services, where residents build makeshift homes.

Favelas or Barrios

Informal urban communities in Latin America, typically characterized by substandard housing and inadequate services, often developed on the peripheries of cities.

Disamenity Zones

Areas within urban environments that are characterized by severe disadvantage, often lacking basic services and infrastructure, and frequently inhabited by marginalized populations.

African City Model

A model that illustrates the unique spatial structure of cities in Africa, highlighting the varying land-use zones, including a traditional central business district, colonial and modern residential areas, and informal settlements.

Informal Economy Zone

A part of the urban economy where transactions occur outside of regulated markets, often including unregistered businesses and informal labor. These zones typically provide vital income and services for marginalized groups in urban areas.

Periodic Markets

Markets that occur at specific intervals, often weekly or monthly, providing local vendors and consumers a space to conduct trade.

Squatter Settlements

Unplanned urban areas where people settle without legal land title, often characterized by inadequate infrastructure and poor living conditions.

McGee Southeast Asian City Model

A model describing the layout of Southeast Asian cities, which includes a central business district surrounded by various zones of industrial and residential use, influenced by colonial history and regional factors.

Zoning Ordinances

Rules governing land use and development in urban areas to regulate the types of activities that can occur on land.

General Zoning Categories

Residential, Commercial, and Industrial

Urban Planning

The process of designing and regulating the development of land and urban spaces to achieve specific objectives such as sustainability, efficient transportation, and community welfare.

Inner City

The central area of a city, often associated with lower-income housing and socioeconomic challenges, characterized by higher population density and urban decay.

Residential Density Gradient

The variation in population density that occurs as one moves from the inner parts of a city to the outskirts, typically showing higher density in urban core areas and lower density in suburban regions.

Filtering

The process by which older housing is progressively occupied by lower-income households as higher-income residents move to newer or renovated homes, often leading to urban decline in certain areas.

Invasion and Succession

The process through which an area experiences demographic change and shifting land use, typically involving new groups or populations settling in a neighborhood, often resulting in changes to the socioeconomic fabric and displacement of existing residents.

Urban Infill

The process of developing vacant or underutilized parcels within existing urban areas to increase density and utilize infrastructure more efficiently.

Suburbanization of Business

The shift of businesses and commercial activities from urban centers to suburban areas, often driven by factors such as lower costs, accessibility, and changing consumer preferences.

Infrasrtructure

The underlying physical systems and facilities needed for the operation of a society, including transportation, communication, utilities, and services that support economic activities and quality of life.

Municipality

A legal governmental entity created to govern a specific geographic area, providing services and regulations to its residents.

Annexation

The process by which a municipality extends its boundaries to include adjacent land, typically to increase its jurisdiction, resources, and service provision.

Incorporation

The legal process by which a community establishes itself as a municipality, gaining the authority to govern and provide services to its residents.

Bedroom Communities

Suburbs or residential areas where residents predominantly commute to nearby urban centers for work.

Unincorporated Areas

Regions that are not governed by a local municipal corporation, often lacking local government services and regulations.

Smart-Growth Policies

A set of planning principles aimed at promoting environmentally sustainable and livable urban spaces by focusing on compact, transit-oriented development and community engagement.

Greenbelts

Designated areas of vegetation or open space intended to limit urban sprawl and protect the environment, providing recreational opportunities and preserving natural habitats.

Slow-growth Cities

Cities that prioritize controlled development to prevent rapid urban sprawl and maintain a high quality of life. These cities focus on sustainable growth practices, community involvement, and preserving natural resources.

New Urban Design

An urban planning approach focused on creating walkable neighborhoods, promoting mixed-use developments, and enhancing community interaction to foster sustainable and vibrant urban environments.

Mixed-Use Neighborhoods

Developed areas that integrate residential, commercial, and recreational spaces to encourage walkability, reduce reliance on cars, and foster a sense of community.

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)

A design principle that focuses on creating compact, walkable communities centered around high-quality public transportation systems, encouraging the use of transit over personal vehicles.

Census Tract

A small, relatively permanent statistical subdivision of a county used by the U.S. Census Bureau for data collection and analysis, typically containing around 1,200 to 8,000 residents, providing detailed demographic information.

Census Block

The smallest geographic unit for data collection by the U.S. Census Bureau, typically bounded by streets and other physical features, containing a few dozen residents.

Redlining

The practice of denying or limiting financial services to specific neighborhoods based on racial or ethnic composition, which contributes to systemic inequality and segregation.

Blockbusting

A real estate practice in which agents instill fear among white homeowners that minorities are moving into their neighborhood, leading to panic selling at lower prices and subsequent reselling to minorities at inflated rates.