Final Extra Information:

Amylase in Carbohydrates

Starts digesting carbohydrates.

Starch → Maltose

Upper Esophageal Sphincter

Stops air from entering.

Lower Esophageal Sphincter

Stops stomach acid from coming up.

Fails = acid reflux.

Protein Digestion Uses What to become what?

HCl and Pepsin to become chyme.

chief cells in stomach cells release what?

pepsinogen and inactive enzymes.

oxyntic (parietal cells) in stomach cells release what?

HCl and the IF

surface epithelial cells secretes

mucus to protect stomach

mucous neck cells in the stomach release

thin mucus

hydrochloric acid (stomach)

pepsin, bacteria, break connective tissue

Functions of Pancreas

Send enzymes into duodenum

Acinar Cells do what?

Make enzymes such as trypsinogen, chymo, procarboxypeptidase need to be inactive or else it willl need to digest itself.

What cell releases sodium bicarbonate?

duct cells

When is secretin released?

When acid enters the duodenum. It helps balance acid and slows stomach secretion.

When is CCK released?

Released when fat and protein enters duodenum. Since they are fat they slow down stomach emptying. It promotes the pancreatic enzymes.

Somatostatin function

Inhibits everything from digestion, pancreatic secretion, and GI activity.

Liver makes what?

Bile

Gallbladder

Stores bile

Bile—>Lipase function

Tiny droplets—>fatty acids+monoglycerides

Brush border enzymes in small intestine

Enterokinase activates trypsin from trypsinogen

Smooth muscles have special pacemaker cells called what?

Interstitial Cells that are similar to the heart’s pacemaker.

Enteric nervous system

Gut’s mini brain independently

What increases acidity and motility in hormones?

Gastrin

What increases bicarbonate and decreases acid?

Secretin

What increases enzymes and bile and decreases stomach emptying?

CCK?

what factors decrease the rate of diffusion?

molecular rate and dstance.

absolute refractory

when sodium gate closes

relative refractory

decrease in resting membrane (hyperpolarization)

Unmyelinated movement during conduction is called what

continguous

myelinated jumping conduction

saltatory

graded potential is a short distance that includes what that fluctuates what?

it includes dendrites, cell body, and stimulus strength that prevent backward voltage movement. It is dependent on membrane potential fluctuation.

action potential requires what line and what distance?

long distance and requires threshold potential

chemical synapse goes where?

into the brain and happens several times across the axon terminal.

IPSP is what part of the action potential graph and what does it include?

GABA glycine; hyperpolarization

IPSP is what part of the action potential graph and what does it include?

Ach/glutamate, depolarization

Temporal summation

EXT1 ×2

Spacial Summation

EXT EXT *2

Where are interneurons?

CNS

hypothalamus vs thalamus

homeostasis, motor control and sensory input

photoreceptor process (rod/cone)

ganglion exposes photoreceptor—>rhodopsin—> activates CGMP—>closes K+ gates—>relays to the thalamus—>occipital lobe—> motor control;

in the eyes, neurons and photoreceptors are in what energy state?

neurons are depolarized and photoreceptors hyperpolarize.

external ear

pinna and tymphanic

middle ear

ossicles and oval window

inner ear

tectorial, bascillar, vestibular

where does the stereocillia touch?

the tectorial from the bascillar

does the ear use graded receptor potential?

yes, moves to temporal

Tonic: light pressure and deep

Merkel, Ruffini

Phasic: light pressure and deep

Meissners and Pacinian

Somatic is in what body parts

The acuity of the touch in face arms…

Sensory vs Motor Homonculus

Sensitive and dense sensory receptors; Fine precise movements take up a lot of brain space

withdrawal

polysynaptic (multiple cells/integrate at the spinal cord)

Ache slows break down in what disease?

myasthenia which attacks nichotic receptors and causes muscle weakness.

Which two parts of the brain are involved with speech?

Wernicke (comp) and Broca (speech) and Aphasia as well

Functions of the prefrontal cortex

planning, personal, social

limbic system function

thalamus ring involved with emotion, learning, motivation, memory

Amygdala is involved with what function?

Fear

Hippocampus

memory, spatial guidance

Anterograde amnesia

no long term memory

Parkinsons involves what neurons in the basal ganglia?

Dopaminergic

what factors are lung compliance dependent on?

air water interface on alveolar and stretchability.

What is the position of external intercoastals when breathing out normally?

rests

What happens to the internal intercoastals when breathing out?

contract

Palv is more or less than Pplu throughout respiratory cycle?

Palv

Conditions where oxygen is released from hemoglobin into the blood?

PH is low, temperature is high. A lot of CO2 in the tissue

Emphysema

loss of alveolar walls, larger/less alveoli

What factor leads to a decrease in CO2 gradient?

Diffusion constant increases

Where is H+ produced for RBCs?

RBC

When does alveolar capillary membrane increase and decrease?

During exercise and decreases during pathological conditions.

How do pacemaker cells communicate to cardiac cells?

Through gap junctions

Order of Cardiac Processses

SA node—> AV—> Bundle of his—>Purkinje fibers—>Cardiac Cells

What does it means when net pressure of ultrafiltration is positive?

Plasma flows into capillaries

What does it mean when reabsorption is negative?

It flows into tissue

what happens during ST segment of the heart?

relaxes/fills with blood

What makes lub, dup, whistle, swish sounds?

AV valve closes, semilunar, forced blood at velocity, the backflow of blood.

What is the concept of Frank Sterling?

The more spread the muscle is, the ore force (pressure) it takes to eject volume

What hormone produces testoserone?

LH

In the male reproductive system, where does inhibin act?

FSH on sertoli

What hormone is the most important during luteinizing phase?

LH because it needs to build up corpus luteum

Negative feedback in Female Reproductive system (prevents fertilization)

Progesterone /Estrogen

What breaks down androgen to estrogen?

Aromatase

What increases cortisol and increases aldosterone production?

ACTH

What increases thyroid hormones?

TSH

Consequences of too much T3 and T4

Increased heart rate, speeds up metabolism, heat intolerance

Effect of Cortisol

Increase glucose, fatty acids, amino acid

Effect of sympathetic hormones

liver glycogen (quick glucose) and adipose triglycerides (insulin inhibition) increase