anatomy semester 2 review guide

agglutination

antibodies that will cause blood with certain proteins to clump.

albumin

plasma protein, osmotic pressure

anemia

decrease in oxygen carrying ability

antigens

substances the body recognized as foreign, and that immune system may attack

fibrin

forms meshwork (basis for clot), long, hairlike

granulocytes

lobed nuclei, white blood cells with granules

hemostasis

process of stopping bleeding

leukopenia

abnormally low WBC count

thrombus

clot in unbroken blood vessel

hemoglobin

  What is necessary for the transport of oxygen by an erythrocyte?

basophils

Which type of granulocyte releases histamine at sites of inflammation?

red bone marrow

Where does hematopoiesis occur to produce new red blood cells?

Rh person receives 2nd transfusion of Rh+ blood

When will hemolysis most likely occur?

myocardium

middle layer of heart, mostly cardiac muscle (contracts)

peripheral resistance

resistance to blood flow offered by the systemic blood vessels; a measure of the amount of friction encountered by blood.

pulse

rhythmic expansion and recoil of arteries resulting from heart contraction.

stroke volume

 volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one contraction (each heartbeat)

-       Pulmonary: heart to lungs, lungs to heart

-       Systemic: heart to body cells, body cells back to heart

  What’s the difference between pulmonary and systemic circulation?

coronary arteries

What branches off the aorta and nourishes the myocardium with oxygenated blood?

myocardium, left ventricle

What heart walls are the thickest?

SA node

Which node is often called the pacemaker?

systole

  What is another way of saying “heart contraction”?

Usually arteries carry blood away from the heart and are oxygen rich while veins carry blood towards the heart and contain deoxygenated blood. Pulmonary arteries and veins are the opposite; arteries contain oxygen poor blood and veins carry oxygen rich blood.

Why are pulmonary arteries and veins exceptions to the rule?

valves

  What do veins have that arteries don’t?

Aorta, arteries, arterioles, capillary beds, venules, veins, vena cava

What is the path of blood flow within the systemic circulation?

vena cava

what vessels have the lowest blood pressure?

fatty calcified deposits in vessels

coronary artery disease results from what?

asthma

chronically inflamed, hypersensitive bronchiole passages. Respond to irritants with dyspnea, couching, and wheezing.

hyperventilation

rising levels of CO2 in blood (acidosis), result in faster, deeper breathing.

pulmonary ventilation

 moving air in and out of lungs (breathing).

pulmonary ventilation

What is another name for the process of moving air into and out of the lungs (commonly called breathing)?

1.    Pulmonary ventilation: moving air in and out of lungs

2.    External respiration: pulmonary gas exchange; O2 is loaded into blood and CO2 is unloaded out of blood, happens in the lungs (gas exchange between blood and alveoli)

3.    Respiratory gas transport: transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide via bloodstream

4.    Internal respiration: gas exchange between blood and tissue cells in systemic capillaries, opposite reaction from what occurs in lungs (cells need O2 for cellular respiration).

Explain what is happening during the 4 events of respiration.

Inspiration: breathing O2, diaphragm goes down while rib muscles expand

Exhalation: exit lungs, ribs relax and contract, diaphragm goes up and back to its curve shape.

  What is the difference between inspiration (inhalation) and expiration (exhalation)?

in plasma as a bicarbonate ion

What is the most common transport method for carbon dioxide?

carbon dioxide

What is the most important blood gas that is rid from the body during breathing?

Moving air towards or away from lungs, humidifies air, warms the air, purifies air, sample for smelling.

  What functions do the respiratory conducting passageways perform?

Moistens air, traps incoming foreign particles, enzymes in mucus destroy bacteria chemically.

what is the role of mucus in the nasal cavity?

Protecting the body from infection.

What role do the tonsils play in the respiratory system?

Diffusion: O2 enters blood and goes to cells, CO2 enters alveoli

High concentration to a low concentration.

How does both oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange through the respiratory membrane?

anaphylactic shock

systemic acute allergic response

antigen

substance that excited immune system and provokes an immune response: recognizing it as foreign

immunocompetent

can respond to specific antigen by binding it with antigen specific receptors.

pathogens

harmful or disease causing organisms

variable region

The region of the antibody that binds to the antigen of a foreign substance

macrophages

What cells within the lymph nodes engulf and destroy foreign substances in the lymph?

skin

What is the body’s first line of defense?

recognizes a specific antigen

What happens during the third line of defense?

Active: immune response made from own body and provoke body for immune response and memory, naturally acquired during bacterial and viral infections (someone coughing in face), artificially acquired from vaccines.

Passive: antibodies are obtained from someone else, never created response/blueprint. Naturally acquired from mother to her fetus or in breast milk, artificially acquired from immune system or gamma globulin (donated antibodies).

What is the difference between active and passive immunity? Naturally vs artificially?

B cells: produce antibodies, humoral immunity because traveling through the humor (body fluids), made in bone marrow circulate through body fluids, make antibodies

T cells: mediated immunity, make T cell receptors. Made in bone marrow, go to thymus, make t cell receptors to recognize already infected cells, which gives cell mediated immunity.

What is the difference between B cells and T cells?

Fights invaders that get past innate system; specific defense is required for each type of invader; changing based on antigen shape which issues an attack on the specific foreign substances.

What is the adaptive defense system?

Causes blood vessels to dilate, capillaries are leaky, phagocytes and white blood cells move into area. Antihistamine to counteract those symptoms (Benadryl),

During the inflammatory response histamine is released.  What does this cause?

helper T cells

AIDS cripples the immune system by interfering with the activity of what T cells?

humoral stimulus

changing blood levels of certain ions and nutrients stimulate hormone release; Ex: insulin is produced in response to changing levels of glucose.

the hormone

In the second messenger system, what serves as the first messenger?

Melatonin: sleep/wake cycle; secreted by pineal gland

Human Chorionic gonadotropin: detected in home pregnancy tests

Thymosin: matures some types of white blood cells (T cells) important in development of immune system; produced by thymus.

Thyroid hormone: major metabolic hormone, controls rate of oxidation of glucose to supply body heat and chemical energy.

Know the function of the following hormones:  melatonin, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), thymosin, thyroid hormone

anterior pituitary

Releasing and inhibiting hormones produced by the hypothalamus will influence what gland?

oxytocin, and ADH

What two hormones does the hypothalamus make?

oxytocin and prolactin

What two hormones play a role in promoting the milk reflex and in stimulating and maintaining breast milk production in a nursing mother's breasts?

calcitonin and PTH

What two hormones regulate calcium levels in the body?

Increase alertness/heart rate, dilation of lungs

What are the symptoms of adrenaline (release of epinephrine)?

catecholamine (epinephrine)

What hormone is released by the adrenal medulla?

amnion

fluid filled sac that surrounds embryo

cleavage

rapid series of mitotic divisions that begins with zygote

gametes

sex cells: egg/sperm

implantation

attachment of the fertilized egg or blastocyst to the wall of the uterus (endometrium) at the start of pregnancy.

ovulation

follicle ruptures when egg is mature and ready to be ejected from ovary-28 days

parturition

strong set of contractions that cause birth of baby.

puberty

period from ages 10-15 when the reproductive organs grow and develop.

zygote

fertilized egg

Helps to activate sperm, fluid enters urethra through several small ducts

What role do the prostate secretions serve?

Epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra

  Trace the pathway of sperm through the duct system during ejaculation.

upper 1/3 of oviduct

where does fertilization usually occur?

endometrium

Which layer of the uterus is shed approximately every 28 days?

action potential

nerve impulse

corpus callosum

large fiber tract that allows for communication between the two hemispheres.

ganglia

collections of cell bodies outside CNS in PNS

Schwann cells

wrap axons in jelly like fashion PNS to form myelin sheath

brain and spinal cord

What is included in the central nervous system

irritability and conductility

What are the two major functional properties of neurons?

Axon: conducts nerve impulses away from cell body.

Axon terminals: transmit messages to other cells by use of neurotransmitters at synapses.

Nodes of Ranvier: gaps between Schwann cell nucleus.

Know the functions of the following parts of a neuron:  axon, axon terminals, nodes of Ranvier

White: connections of myelinated fibers

Gray: unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies.

What is the difference between white and gray matter?

a.    Sensory receptor- reacts to stimulus.

b.    Sensory neuron- carries message to integration center. (afferent pathway)

c.    Integration center- processes information and directs motor output. (integration center uses interneurons).

d.    Motor neuron- carries message to an effector.

e.    Effector organ- muscle or gland to be stimulated

List the correct sequence of a typical reflex arc

Neurons either conduct action potentials along the length of their axons, or they remain at rest.

Describe the “all or none response” of an action potential.

Regulates breathing (mainly when you are sleeping).

What is the major function of the pons?

blocked artery in brain

What is the cause of cerebrovascular accident (CVA)/stroke?

accomodation

lens must change shape to focus on closer objects (less than 20 feet away). Can focus on an object.

Choroid

blood rich nutritive layer that contains pigment (prevents light from scattering)

Conjunctiva

membrane lines eyelids and eyeball, connects with transparent cornea, secretes mucus to lubricate and keep moist.

hair cells

receptor cells for hearing found in the cochlea. If those get triggered, they trigger an action potential to brain.

papillae

covers the tongue and contains taste buds.

photopupillary reflex

bright light causes pupils to constrict

pupil

rounded opening in iris

a.    Hammer (malleus)

b.    Anvil (incus)

c.    Stirrup (stirrup)

d.    oval window of inner ear

What is the pathway of vibrations as they travel from the eardrum to one ossicle to the next?

myopia

What is the “fancy” word for “nearsighted”?

middle ear to nasopharynx

What does the Eustachian tube connect?

vestibule and semicircular canals

What parts of the ear are used for balance and not for hearing?

sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami

5 taste sensations