PHIL120W FINAL EXAM KEY IDEAS

Cultural Relativism - Mary Midgley: why does she argue that it is incorrect?

1. If true, no futures can praise/blame each other
2. if we cannot judge, cannot respect/honour
3. judging cultures does not require full understanding
4. if cannot judge other cultures, cannot judge our own either
5. cultures been intermixing forever, odd claim that we cannot understand

James Rachels criticisms of cultural relativism

1. argument cultural relativism logically invalid


1. invalid because true premise but conclusion can be false
2. if true, no one can criticize moral beliefs of a society 
3. no possibility for moral progress
4. accepting = encouraging tolerance (promoting intolerance over tolerance)
5. no such thing as moral reform

utilitarianism - john stuart mills: 3 core claims

consequentialist normative moral theory

* moral rightness/wrongness determined by consequences alone

3 core claims:


1. moral worth of any action to be evaluated on the basis of consequences alone
2. right actions maximize utility and vice versa
3. everyone matters equally in the calculation of utility


1. view that “good” = “pleasurable” \~ hedonism
2. higher and lower pleasures - more desirable is preferred regardless of moral obligation

Act utilitarianism

holds each action to be evaluated by reference of its own consequences

rule utilitarianism

moral obligation to act maximize overall happiness

* notions of justice, promise keeping, promoting best utility

harm principle

only purpose to rightfully exercise power over a citizen against their will is to prevent harm

contrary beliefs importance

censorship harms speaker

robs humans of posterity

4 grounds on which censorship should be opposed

1. contrary opinion must be true
2. even if opinion mostly wrong, can be party true
3. even if whole truth is known, needs to be challenged
4. not challenging prevents growth

Kants imperatives

an obligation/duty

hypothetical imperatives are binding on us because of some want/desire we have

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categorical imperatives are binding regardless of wants and desires (absolutely binding rational beings)

* morla impteratives

2 categorical imperatives

CI1: ought never to act except in such a way that we can will that our maxim should be a universal law

* don’t do unless rationally think everyone else will too
* some things only good in what they’re used for, some things good in themselves

CI2: act in such a way you have always treated humanity, as an end.

Cost-benefit: Mark Sagoff

value determined by how much consumers willing to pay

* neo-kantian ethicist
* environment has intrinsic value cannot be used as mere means to achieve our own ends

Aristotle key ideas

* everything has it’s own telos (end/goal)
* good of all things determined by telos
* virtuous person is one who acts virtuously (has and exercises virtues)
* a virtue is a trait o that is manifested into habitual action
* virtues sit on a golden mean (between excess and deficiency)
* contrasted with vices
* contributes to eudaemonia (could be our telos) (deep meaningful fulfillment)

Abortion debates - Rosalind Hursthouse

P1: action is right if it is what a virtuous agent would do under circumstances

P1a: virtuous agent has and exercises virtues

P2: virtue is a character trait humans need to flourish

women should be acting from good character, if they see pregnancy as good/bad depending on circumstances

distributive justice - John Rawls

original position - behind the veil of ignorance we have no knowledge of our identity, gender, class, strength, health, religion, etc..

maximin rule: we ought to maximize for minimum (worst off in society are as well off as can be, in case we end up there)

2 principles of justice

1. each person to have an equal right to most extensive basic liberty compatible with similar liberty for others


1. afford us political liberty, freedom on speech/thought
2. social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so they’re both (a) reasonably expected to be arranged to everyones advantage (b) attached to position/offices accessible to everyone


1. applies to distribution of income/wealth

difference principle

no injustice in greater benefit earned by few provided situation of persons not fortunate

unconditional basic income (UBI)

maximizes distribution of wealth and income understood as a social basis of self respect

each person receives grant fixed at highest sustainable level irregardless of other income or employment

subservience

non subservient: when understand self as member of community - reason giving and reason demanding

social bases of respect

recognition bases of respect: recognition from fellow citizens supporting confidence in ability to succeed according to standards and non-subservience

resource bases of self respect: accordance to personal standards and maintaining non-subservience

3 ways income serves as resource basis of self respect

1. freedom benefit: freedom to change job or stop working overall for the sake of self-respect
2. leisure-quantity benefit: looking beyond work for pleasure
3. leisure-quality benefit: income affects quality of leisure (cost of hobbies/relaxation/going out)

means testing for UBI should be rejected because:

1. requires intrusion into applicants’ lives
2. payments carry social stigma

Nozicks two central claims

1. minimal state = most extensive state that can be justified
2. any state more extensive than the minimal violates peoples rights

entitlement theory of distributive justice

* historical - not patterned
* justice of peoples holdings - depends on what really happened

3 principles:


1. Thing is owned justly if originally acquired justly and transferred justly
2. person entitled to resources if/only acquired through


1. just original position
2. just transfer
3. just if everyone entitled to resources they possess


1. just acquisition: one comes to justly own through: mixing labour, leaving enough and as good as others, not making others worse off

land reparations - Gregory alexander: 2 possible objectives in land reparations

1. foundation of argument isn't compensation for past injustice, but to correct ongoing injustices originating in the past
2. historically focused

issues making land claims difficult to resolve

a. time (lost evidence, unreliability)

b. land (physical changes, psychological ties, past social agreements, improvements or adding to land)

c. peoples (original occupants - “absolute indigeneity”)

legal principle of first possession (PFP)

legal principle of prior possession (PPP)

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social groups

collective of persons, members have an affinity due to experience/way of live. expressions of social relations.

5 conditions of oppression

1. exploitation
* capitalist economics create institutional forms of oppression
* private ownership of productions, allocating labour, bosses and workers dynamics
* women give men and children emotional care, men sexual gratification, nurturing qualities, women don’t get it back.
2. marginalization
* laid off/no new work old people
* groups of people involuntarily unemployed (latinos, blacks, single mothers, mentally/physically disabled people)
3. powerlessness
* some have power and wealth from labour of others 
* superior/subordinate dynamic


4. cultural imperialism
* group experiences/culture is universalized and established as the norm
* dominant group may project own experiences and representative
* causes culturally oppressed to experience a double consciousness
5. violence
* some groups live knowing must fear random attacks on selves for reason of damage, humiliation, destroy person

Frye key ideas

lived experiences of oppressed people present double-blind situations in which options are few and expose oppressed to penally, or deprivation.

look at structure of oppressive system rather than individual elements.

“chivalrous” acts such as holding door open for women are unhelpful and do not aid in the burdensome tasks routinely asked of women.

Appiahs racialism

racialism - inherited characteristics possessed by human permit us to divide them into small # of races because members of races share characteristics

extrinsic vs intrinsic rasism

extrinsic racism - factual claim associated with racialism

* believe in racial essence - some races more intelligent, honest, etc
* would change views with appropriate evidence

intrinsic racism - more distinction between races with belief that races have different moral statuses

* independent from characteristic beliefs
* don’t care for evidence

julia sereno

defends IIM model of sex/gender

argues against SCM and GEM

* physical sex: anatomy
* subconscious sex: internal feelings
* sexual orientation: sexual attraction
* gender expression: how we appear to others externally

social constructionism model (SCM)

performative model

* gender expression is so regulated in society, people say femininity and masculinity are social constructs
* gender roles culturally relative social constricts

problem: some children from birth show signs of femininity as males and masculinity and women

Gender Essentialist model (GEM)

those born male are programmed to act masculine and those born female programmed to act feminine

* genetic

problems:

* not all women are feminine and not all men are masculine

Intrinsic inclinations model (IIM)

suggests certain expressions of femininity and masculinity represent deep subconscious inclinations in a manner similar to those of sexual orientation and subconscious sex.

inclination: persistent desire, affinity, urge that predisposes us towards particular gender/sexual expression/preferences

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1. subconscious sex, gender expression, sexual orientation represent separate gender inclinations determined independently of each other
2. gender inclinations are intrinsic to our persons, occur on a deep subconscious level and generally remain intact despite social influences
3. no single genetic, anatomical, psychological tactic been found to directly cause any gender inclinations
4. each correlation roughly correlates with physical sex

problems caused by livestock in farming

1. increased greenhouse emissions
2. increased health issues to workers and those near intensive farms (asthma, respiratory problems)
3. water shortages and land degradation

reasons to reduce animal consumption

* expensive, unhealthy
* vegetarian and vegan diets meet nutritional needs

Palmer - moral considerability

to have moral status is to be an entity towards which moral agents have/can have moral obligations. if an entity has a moral status, we cannot treat them just how we please, moral obligation to give weight to its needs and wellbeing.

argues animals deserve moral consideration because they feel pain and experience different mental states.

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Robinson - cultural basis for veganism

aboriginal veganism faces two barriers:


1. association of veganism with whiteness
* seen as sacrificing cultural authenticity
* challenging for those seeing as veganism ethically, spiritually, and culturally compatible with indigeneity
* seen as a product of class privilege
2. veganism a kind of failure (implies bad hunter)
* traditional diet is heavy meat supplemented with vegetables, nuts, berries
* gendered: women prepare, gather, clean the food and men hunt
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