psych sem 2 final

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for and interpret information that confirms existing beliefs.

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency to overestimate dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors in others’ behavior.

Discrimination

Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.

Stereotypes

Generalized beliefs about a group of people.

Implicit attitudes

Unconscious attitudes that influence behavior and judgments.

Prejudice

An unjustifiable negative attitude toward a group and its members.

In-group bias

The tendency to favor one’s own group.

Peripheral route persuasion

Persuasion based on superficial cues such as attractiveness or emotion.

Social norms

Rules for expected behavior in a group.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or thinking to match a group.

Obedience

Following direct commands from authority figures.

Social loafing

Reduced effort when working in a group.

Group polarization

Strengthening of group opinions after discussion.

Groupthink

Poor decision-making due to desire for harmony in a group.

Altruism

Selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Bystander effect

Reduced likelihood of helping when others are present.

Social traps

Situations where self-interest leads to negative outcomes for the group.

Superordinate goals

Shared goals that require cooperation to achieve.

Locus of control

The degree to which people believe they control outcomes (internal vs external).

Motivation

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

Instinct

An unlearned pattern of behavior triggered by stimuli.

Drive-reduction theory

The idea that behavior aims to reduce physical discomfort and maintain homeostasis.

Arousal theory

The theory that people seek optimal levels of arousal.

Incentive theory

The idea that behavior is motivated by external rewards.

Self-determination theory

The theory that motivation is driven by autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Intrinsic motivation

Performing an activity for its own satisfaction.

Extrinsic motivation

Performing an activity for external rewards.

Ghrelin

A hormone that increases hunger.

Leptin

A hormone that decreases hunger.

Display rules

Cultural norms that regulate emotional expression.

Elicitor

A stimulus that triggers an emotional response.

Eustress

Positive stress that motivates and improves performance.

Distress

Negative stress that causes anxiety and harm.

Stress

The body’s response to demands or threats.

General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

The body’s three-stage stress response: alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

Tend and befriend

A stress response involving seeking social support and protecting others.

Emotion-focused coping

Managing emotional responses to stress.

Problem-focused coping

Addressing the source of stress directly.

Subjective well-being

Self-perceived happiness and life satisfaction.

Broaden-and-build theory

Positive emotions expand thinking and build resources over time.

Posttraumatic growth

Positive psychological change after adversity.

Psychological disorders

Patterns of thoughts, feelings, or behaviors causing distress or dysfunction.

DSM

A manual used to classify psychological disorders.

Eclectic approach

Using multiple perspectives to understand disorders.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

A disorder involving social communication deficits and repetitive behaviors.

Schizophrenia

A severe disorder involving hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking.

Positive symptoms of schizophrenia

Added behaviors such as hallucinations and delusions.

Negative symptoms of schizophrenia

Loss of normal functions such as flat affect.

Delusions

False beliefs maintained despite evidence.

Hallucinations

Sensory experiences without external stimuli.

Catatonia

Disturbance of movement ranging from immobility to excessive activity.

Bipolar disorders

Mood disorders involving cycles of mania and depression.

Specific phobia

Intense fear of a specific object or situation.

Social anxiety disorder

Fear of social situations due to fear of judgment.

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

Chronic excessive worry about various aspects of life.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

A disorder involving obsessions and compulsions.

Obsessions

Intrusive, unwanted thoughts.

Compulsions

Repetitive behaviors to reduce anxiety.

Dissociative disorders

Disorders involving disruptions in memory or identity.

Dissociative identity disorder (DID)

A disorder with multiple distinct identities.

Anorexia nervosa

An eating disorder involving extreme restriction of food intake.

Bulimia nervosa

An eating disorder involving bingeing and purging.

Personality disorders

Enduring patterns of maladaptive behavior.

Cluster A personality disorders

Odd or eccentric behaviors.

Cluster B personality disorders

Dramatic or emotional behaviors.

Cluster C personality disorders

Anxious or fearful behaviors.

Psychotherapy

Treatment using psychological techniques.

Therapeutic alliance

The relationship between therapist and client.

Psychotropic medication

Drugs used to treat mental disorders.

Unconditional positive regard

Accepting a person without judgment.

Cognitive therapies

Therapies that change negative thought patterns.

Applied behavior analysis

Using learning principles to change behavior.

Exposure therapy

Treatment involving gradual exposure to feared stimuli.

Aversion therapy

Pairing unwanted behavior with unpleasant stimuli.

Token economies

Reward systems using tokens for desired behavior.

Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)

Therapy that challenges irrational beliefs.

Ethical principles of treatment

Guidelines including do no harm and respect for dignity.

Antipsychotic medications

Drugs that reduce symptoms of psychosis.

Tardive dyskinesia

Involuntary movements caused by long-term antipsychotic use.

Antianxiety drugs

Medications that reduce anxiety.

Lithium

A mood stabilizer used for bipolar disorder.

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

Treatment using electrical stimulation to relieve severe depression.

Psychosurgery

Surgical intervention in the brain to treat disorders.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

Noninvasive brain stimulation using magnetic fields.

Lobotomy

A rare procedure cutting connections in the frontal lobe.

Lesioning

Destruction of brain tissue.

Consciousness

Awareness of oneself and the environment.

Circadian rhythm

The body’s internal 24-hour biological clock.

Sleep stages

Distinct phases of sleep including REM and NREM.

REM sleep

A stage of sleep with rapid eye movement and vivid dreaming.

REM rebound

Increase in REM sleep after deprivation.

NREM sleep

Non-rapid eye movement sleep including deep sleep stages.

Hypnagogic sensations

Hallucinations or sensations during sleep onset.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

A disorder causing sudden sleep attacks.

Sleep apnea

A disorder where breathing repeatedly stops during sleep.

Consolidation theory

The idea that sleep helps strengthen memories.

Activation-synthesis theory

The theory that dreams result from brain activity interpreted by the mind.

Defense mechanisms

Unconscious strategies to reduce anxiety.

Denial

Refusing to accept reality.