All feminist theories of religion

Woodhead (2009)

• Religion ≠ (always) patriarchy, female oppression

  • Not all forms are patriarchal

  • Women can use religion to gain freedom and respect

Hijab/veil (☪) — Gilliat-Ray (2010)

• Seen by W. feminists as oppression but by the wearer as liberating

  • Used by young 🇬🇧☪ to gain parental approval and enter further education and employment

  • Allows wearer to enter public sphere without being called immodest

Brusco (1995; 2012) — Pentacostalism in 🇨🇴

• Pentacostal membership is good for 🇨🇴 women

• Traditional gender role beliefs — men have to respect women

  • Women use bible groups to find support and gain power and influence

    • Then use the trad gender role belief to insist men refrain from macho behaviour

Rinaldo (2010) — piety mvmts

• Pentacostalism = piety mvmt

• Piety mvmt = conservative mvmt that supports trad teachings

• Women use piety mvmts to find ways for further their own interests

CRITICISM of Rinaldo (2010)

• Only W/C rural ones use religion to further their own interests

  • M/C urban women already have the education and income to pursue their goals

Daly (1973)

• Women should leave the church and create their own religious groups

De Beauvoir

Radicial feminist

De Beauvoir — role of religion

• Tool of deception

• Used by men to compensate women for their second-class status

  • Encourages meekness and putting up with suffering to get next-wordly rewards

De Beauvoir — intended audience of religion

• Women

  • Therefore women participate more

El Saadawi

Radical

El Saadawi — cause of female oppression

• Patriarchal society and reinterpretation of religious beliefs to benefit men

• Hijab = oppressive

CRITICISM of El Saadawi

• Heavy reliance on personal experience

  • 🇪🇬

  • Underwent FGM at age of 6

  • Was a victim of severe religious violence

4 CRITICISMS of all perspectives generally

1. PoMo — religion has no meaning to individuals anymore

2. Secularisation

3. Positive psychological functions

4. Not all men in mainstream religions are patriarchal

Function of religious beliefs

• Patriarchal ideology

• Legitimate female subordination

4 ways in which women are marginalised in religion

1. Religious organisations

2. Places of worship

3. Sacred texts

4. Laws and customs

Religious organisations

• Dominated by men despite lots of female participation

  • E.g. Orthodox ✡ and Catholicism do not allow female priests

Religious organisations — Armstrong (1993)

• Lack of female priests shows that women are marginalised in religion

Religious organisations — Woodhead (2002)

• Lack of female priests shows ⛪️’s deep unease about female emancipation

Places of worship — men | women

• Segregation of men and women

• Men often occupy central spaces

  • Women might be behind screens

Places of worship — restrictions on women

• May not be able to read/preach sacred texts

• Menstruation/prenancy/childbirth seen as polluting, esp in ☪️

Places of worship — Holm (2001)

• Physical separation of men and women and restrictions placed on women show that they are devalued in religion

Sacred texts

• Feature male gods

• Written and interpreted by men

Sacred texts — presentation of women

• Contain anti-female stereotypes

  • Mary Magdalene = woman of ‘loose morals’

  • Eve caused humanity’s fall from grace

  • Whore of Babylon was killed

• Madonna whore complex — women are either seen as deviant or traditional

Laws and customs — rights

• Give men more rights than women

  • Divorce

  • Number of spouses

  • Decision-making

  • Dressing

Laws and customs — cultural norms

• Religion impacts cultural norms, legitimating and regulating the idea of a trad. domestic and reproductive role

  • FGM

  • Catholic ban on abortion and contraception

2 ways in which religion is not patriarchal

1. Women have not always been below men

2. Religion is not always the direct source of female oppression

Women not always being below men — Armstrong (1993)

• Woman-centric aspects of religion found in the ME until 6,000 years ago

  • Earth mother goddesses

  • Fertility cults

  • Female priests

• 4,000 years ago — change

  • More monotheistic religions

    • Establishment of male omnipotent Gods and prophets (Abraham, Yehovah)

Religions not always direct source of female oppression — El Saadawi (1980)

• Actual cause: patriarchal society

  • This then influences and reshapes the interpretation of existing religious beliefs

CRITICISMS: liberal protestant orgs

• Quakers and Unitarians are commited to equality

• CofE has had female priests since 1994 and bishops since 2015 (breaking the stained glass ceiling)

Proportion of CofE and Unitarian priests/ministers that are women

1/3

3 ways religious scriptures and teachings support patriarchy

1. Present men as the ultimate authority

2. Present women as subordinate and responsible for sin

3. Encourge acceptance of traditional gender roles

1 way religious leadership supports patriarchy

1. Restricted to men so prevents women from having power/status authority — Armstrong’s stained glass ceiling

1 way religious organisations support patriarchy

1. Hierarchical and male dominated, reflect and reinforce wider patriarchal structures

Important thing about El Sadaawi

• Sees FGM as religious manifestation of patriarchy

  • I.e. is something horrible done to women in the name of religion