PSYCH 202 FINAL EXAM - DR. GALLIMORE - UNIVERSITY OF WICSONSIN-MADISON

Scientific Method

question why something happens --> purpose hypothesis --> test hypothesis --> make observations --> come up with theory

Structuralism (Wundt)

view each part of a system independently and observe it's individual function

Introspection (Wundt)

a process by which someone examines their own conscious as objectively as possible

Functionalism (James)

views system as a whole instead of as individual parts as well as how it works as a whole

Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)

focuses on the role of the unconscious mind & childhood experiences and how these two things affect the conscious mind

Pavlov

studied condition reflex (classical conditioning); behaviorist

Watson

majorly involved in shifting the study of psychology at the time from the mind to behavior; behaviorist

Skinner

believed that reinforcement and punishment were major factors in driving behavior; behaviorist

Behaviorism

the theory that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning

Humanism

a perspective within psychology that emphasizes humanity's innate capacity for good

Rodgers

used client-centered therapy; humanist

Client-Centered Therapy

the therapist maximizes unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy; therapist acts as a mirror for client to see themselves in an objective manner

The Cognitive Revolution

revived interest in the mind as a focus of scientific inquiry

Feminist Psychology

criticized male psychologists for constructing the psychology of women entirely out of their own cultural basis and without careful experimental tests to verify any of their characterizations of women

Multicultural Psychology

studying effects of the same stimulus on different cultures showed different results

Biopsychology

explores how our biology influences our behavior

Evolutionary Psychology

seeks to study the ultimate biological causes of behavior; how universal patterns of behavior change over time

Sensation & Perception

Scientists interested in both physiological aspects of sensory systems as well as in the psychological experience of sensory information

Cognitive Psychology

the area of psychology that focuses on studying conditions, or thoughts, and their relationship to our experiences and our actions

Developmental Psychology

the study of development across a lifespan

Personality Psychology

focuses on through and behaviors that make each individual unique; Freud proposed that personalities arise from conflicts between the conscious and unconscious minds

"5 Big Traits"

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

Social Psychology

how we interact with and relate to others

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

applies psychological theories, principles, and research findings in industrial and organizational settings

Health Psychology

focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors (biopyschosocial model)

Sport and Exercise Psychology

psychological aspects of sports performance: motivation and performance anxiety, effects of sport on mental and emotional well-being

Clinical Psychology

focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior

Counseling Psychology

focuses on emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes in individuals who are considered psychologically healthy

Forensic Psychology

deals with questions of psychology as they arise in the context of the justice system

The Scientific Process

ideas are tested against the world, those observations lead to more ideas, those are tested, and so on; circular

Deductive Reasoning

ideas are tested against empirical world

Inductive Reasoning

empirical observations lead to new ideas

The Scientific Process (2)

hypothesis/general premise --> deductive reasoning --> empirical observations --> inductive reasoning --> hypothesis/general premise --> and so on...

A scientific hypothesis must be...

James-Lange Theory

emotions come from physical symptoms that arise due to stimuli

Approaches to Research

observational techniques, interactions between researcher and individual, well-controlled experiments; these are all correlational; researchers can speak to important relationships that might exist between two or more variables of interest, cannot be used to make claims on cause-and-effect relationships; correlation does not equal causation

Clinical or Case Studies

focus on one person or a few individuals; information collected is unmatched but cannot be generalized to the population

Naturalistic Observation

studies humans in their natural state; very useful if obtained, but hard to obtain because we cannot spy on people, people tend to change their behavior if they know someone is watching, people have a hard time being honest, observer bias, inter-relator reliability

Observer Bias

tendency of observers to see what they expect to see

Inter-rater Reliability

measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event

Surverys

collect data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire; not in depth and not always accurate because not objective

Archival Research

use existing records to answer various research questions

Longitudinal Research

tests the same group of individuals repeatedly over a long period of time; information is unmatched, but cannot be generalized

Cross-Sectional Research

a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time; information is not as good as longitude research, but it is cheaper and can be done faster

Correlational Research

there is a relationship between two or more variables, but they are not dependent on each other; +1 or -1 to determine how closely related they are; +1 is strongest positive correlation, -1 is strongest negative correlation; correlation might equal causation sometimes, but most of the time there is a cofounding variable

Cofounding Variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

Illusionary Correlation

people believe that relationships exist between two things when no such relationship exists

Confirmation Bias

having a hunch about something and searching for facts to support it instead of objectively looking at facts

The Experimental Hypothesis

cannot use limited personal observations and anecdotal evidence to rigorously test hypothesis; must use real-world data

Experimental Group

group that is exposed to the independent variable that is being tested

Control Group

the group that does not receive the experimental treatment

Operational Definition

a description of how we measure our variables so everyone understands and interprets data correctly and similarly

Single-Blind Study

study in which one of the groups are unaware as to which group they are in while researcher knows

Double-Blind Study

study in which both of the groups are unaware as to which group they are in

Random Sample

subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

random assignment

every participant in a study has an equal chance of being assigned to either group

Statistical Analysis

conducted to find out if there are meaningful differences between the two groups

Peer-Reviewed Journal Article

aimed at an audience of professionals and scholars who are actively involved in research themselves

Institutional Review Board

committee that must approve that a study is safe and ethical before it can be done

Informed Consent

a form that must be signed by participants of a study before they participate

Deception

involves purposefully misleading participants in order to maintain integrity of the experiment, but not to the point where it could be harmful; participants are debriefed by the end of the study

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee

oversees ensuring that all animal participants are treated humanely

Behavior

comes from intention & perceived behavioral norm; intention comes about through one's attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral norm

Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

organisms that are better suited for their environment will survive and reproduce, while those that are poorly suited for their environment will die off

Behavioral Genetics

studies how individual differences arise, in the present, through the interaction of genetics and environment

Genetic Environmental Correlation

our genes influence our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes

Epigenetics

looks beyond the genotype itself and studies how the same genotype can be expressed in different ways

Glial Cells

supports neurons

Neurons

interconnected information processors that are essential for all the tasks of the nervous system

Outer Surface of Brain

semipermeable membrane

Soma

cell body; houses the nucleus; has branching extensions called dendrites

Dendrites

transmit signals across soma and down the axon, which ends at terminal buttons

Terminal Buttons

contain synaptic vesicles that house neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters

the chemical messengers of the nervous system

Mylein Sheath

coats the axon and acts as an insulator, increasing signal speed

Synapse

very small space between two neurons, important site where communication between neurons occurs

Receptors

proteins on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach

Membrane Potential

the difference in charge across the membrane which proves energy for the signal; inside is negative, outside is positive

Resting Potential

between signals, the neuron's membrane potential is held in a state of readiness

Threshold of Excitation

if a neuron's charge reaches a certain level, the neuron becomes active and active potential begins

Action Potential

the electrical signal that typically moves from the cell body down the axon terminals; all-or-none phenomenon

Reuptake

neurotransmitter is pumped back into the neuron that released it in order to clear the synapse

Electrochemical Event

involves electric and chemical process; inside the neuron is electrical process, in the synapse is chemical process

Biological Perspective of Psychological Disorders

psychological disorders are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems

Psychotropic Medications

treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance

Agnonist Medication

mimic a neurotransmitter at the receptor site and strengthen its effects

Antagonist Medication

block or impede the normal activity of a neurotransmitter at the receptor site to weaken its effects

Central Nervous System (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

connects CNS to the rest of the body (nerves)

Autonomic Nervous System

controls internal organs and glands, considered to be outside the realm of voluntary control, and can be divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

Sympathetic Nervous System

prepares the body for stress-related event

Parasympathetic Nervous System

returns the body to routine operations (homeostasis)

The Spinal Cord

initiates automatic reflexes; messages do not have to be sent to the brain

Cerebral Cortex

surface of the brain

Gyri

patterns of fold and bumps on cerebral cortex

Sulci

grooves between gyri

Longitudal Fissure

deep grove that separates the brain into two halves

Lateralization

specialization of function in each hemisphere; left side of brain controls right half of body, right half of brain controls left side of body

Corpus Callosum

thick band of neural fibers connecting the brain's two hemispheres

Frontal Lobe

motor cortex, language