hell bio final

What is the difference between a solute and a solvent? Give examples.

A solute is a substance that is dissolved in a solvent. Examples include salt and sugar. A solvent is a substance that dissolves a solute. An example is water.

Intracellular, extracellular, and intercellular

What are the compartments where water is located in the body?

Define dehydration and intoxication (hyponatremia).

Dehydration is a state of abnormally low water in the body. Intoxication, specifically hyponatremia, is abnormally low sodium in the blood.

What does the word hyponatremia mean and what can cause it?

low sodium in the blood and can be caused by excessive water intake or endurance activities.

What is osmosis and in which direction will water flow relative to the concentration of a solute?

movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration.

Why do salty foods increase thirst?

because they increase the concentration of solutes in the blood, causing water to be drawn out of cells to maintain balance.

What are the roles/functions of sodium and calcium in the body?

plays a role in fluid balance, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction. plays a role in bone health, muscle contraction, and nerve function.

What is the sodium content of table salt?

Approximately 40% of table salt is sodium.

What is the relationship between sodium and hypertension? What is sodium sensitivity?

high intake can lead to hypertension (high blood pressure). Sodium sensitivity refers to the degree to which an individual's blood pressure is affected by sodium intake.

What is the DASH diet and how does it differ from the typical current American diet?

diet is rich in fruits, vegetables, and low-fat dairy, and low in saturated fat, cholesterol, and total fat. It differs from the typical American diet by being lower in sodium, processed foods, and sugary beverages.

In the DASH diet study, what was the difference between the control group, the 'fruits and vegetables' group, and the 'combination' diet? What were the conclusions from this study?

The control group followed a typical American diet, the "fruits and vegetables" group increased their intake of these foods, and the "combination" diet followed the DASH diet. The combination diet resulted in the greatest reduction in blood pressure.

What is the difference between primary (essential) and secondary hypertension?

Primary hypertension has no identifiable cause, while secondary hypertension is caused by an underlying condition such as kidney disease or hormonal disorders.

How are calcium blood levels maintained? Which hormones are involved?

maintained by hormones including Vitamin D, calcitonin, and parathormone.

What is the role of calbindin? What vitamin controls its expression? When would its production increase/decrease?

a protein that binds calcium in the intestinal cells, which is controlled by Vitamin D. Its production increases when calcium levels are low and decreases when calcium levels are high.

What are the dangers of elevated blood calcium?

can lead to kidney stones, muscle weakness, and neurological problems.

What is peak bone mass?

maximum bone density attained during life, typically in early adulthood.

Why does a low calcium intake through life not affect blood calcium levels but does affect bone density?

because the body will pull calcium from the bones to maintain blood calcium levels. However, this decreases bone density over time.

What are the risk factors and protective factors for osteoporosis (which are modifiable and non-modifiable)?

include age, gender, genetics, and low calcium/vitamin D intake. Protective factors include weight-bearing exercise and adequate calcium/vitamin D intake. Modifiable factors include diet and exercise; non-modifiable factors include age, gender, and genetics.

How does osteoporosis differ from osteomalacia?

Osteoporosis is a condition of decreased bone density, while osteomalacia is a condition of soft bones due to vitamin D deficiency.

What is the difference between heme vs. non-heme iron? Which is more bioavailable and why?

heme is found in animal foods and is more bioavailable

vs. non-heme)?

Non-heme iron is found in leafy green vegetables, beans, and fortified cereals.

What foods are sources of each type of iron (heme

Heme iron is found in meat, fish, and poultry.

What can increase/decrease absorption of iron?

. Vitamin C can increase absorption of iron. Phytates and tannins can decrease absorption of iron.

How does an iron deficiency develop (i.e. what is the difference between iron deficiency and anemia?

Iron deficiency develops when iron stores are depleted. Anemia is when the deficiency is severe enough that the oxygen carrying capacity of blood is reduced.

Who is susceptible to iron deficiency?

Women of childbearing age, infants, and children are susceptible to iron deficiency.

What can cause loss of iron from the body?

Iron can be lost from the body through blood loss such as menstruation, injury, or GI bleeding.

What is the type of anemia associated with long-term iron deficiency? How is it treated? How does it compare to megaloblastic anemia?

microcytic anemia, which is treated with iron supplements. Megaloblastic anemia is due to folate or B12 deficiency.

What are ferritin and transferrin used for in relation to iron in the body? Where can iron be stored?

are used to store and transport iron in the body.

where is iron stored in body

can be stored in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow.

How is iron lost from the body?

Iron is lost primarily through blood loss and shedding of cells.

What is the genetically inherited condition associated with iron toxicity? What is the treatment? Are there any dietary restrictions?

hemochromatosis, which is treated with phlebotomy (blood removal) and dietary restrictions of iron-rich foods.

What is the function of iodine? How is it similar in some functions to vitamins A and D?

of thyroid hormones. It functions similarly to vitamins A and D in regulating gene expression.

Which hormone contains iodine in its structure?

Thyroid hormones contain iodine in its structure.

Name deficiency states in adults/infants of deficient mothers that result from iodine deficiency.

Deficiency states in adults include goiter (enlarged thyroid gland) and hypothyroidism. In infants of deficient mothers, deficiency can cause cretinism (stunted growth and mental retardation).

What are the reasons for iodine deficiency being so common in certain parts of the world?

is common in certain parts of the world due to low iodine content in the soil, lack of iodized salt, and consumption of goitrogens.

What is a goitrogen?

a substance that interferes with iodine uptake in the thyroid gland, leading to goiter.

Why is it so difficulty to maintain loss once you have gained weight?

The body adapts by lowering metabolism.

Determining the cause of weight gain (what contributes to calorie increase or decrease of output
in people)...

Calorie increase: overeating, high-calorie processed foods, sugary beverages, lack of portion control.

What is meant by behavior modification (give examples) as part of a successful weight loss
program?

It involves changing habits and behaviors to support weight loss goals.

why do 95% of diets fail

Diets often focus on short-term restriction rather than sustainable change. They may be too strict,

Recommended number of calories per day/ week to decrease in order to lose weight successfully?

A reduction of 500–1,000 kcal/day is typical, leading to 1–2 pounds lost per week.

suggested rate weight loss

    1–2 pounds per week is considered safe and sustainable.

What is the point of gastric bypass surgery?

To limit food intake and reduce nutrient absorption for significant weight loss.

General differences between macronutrients and micronutrients. How do micronutrients fit into some of the processes we have already discussed with the energy nutrients

- (carbs, proteins, fats) provide energy and are needed in large amounts.

- (vitamins, minerals) do not provide energy but are essential for body functions and are needed in smaller amounts.

- B vitamins act as coenzymes in cellular respiration. And protein synthesis

fortification of grain products/foods?

Adding nutrients not originally present

What is the difference between enrichment, By law, with which nutrients must refined grain products be enriched?

Adding back nutrients lost during processing

  Bioavailability of different nutrients- why are some more absorbable than others (for example folic acid vs. folate)? What are some ways that bioavailability of nutrients be increased/ decreased?

Depends on the form (e.g., synthetic folic acid is more bioavailable than natural folate), food matrix, gut health, presence of enhancers (like vitamin C for iron),

diffrent types of the same vitamin

Vitamin A: retinol (storage), retinal (vision), retinoic acid (gene regulation).

ascorbic acid

vitamin c

thiamin

vitamin b1

riboflavin

vitamin B2

where are fat solube vitamins are stored?

A, D, E, K): stored in liver and tissue.

where are water vitamins are stored?

not stored (except B12 in the liver).

what does vitamin D do in each organ in order to increase or decrease blood calcium

-        Intestine: increases calcium absorption.

-       Kidneys: reduces calcium excretion.

-        Bone: mobilizes calcium when needed.

What are vitamin precursors or “pro” forms What is required for them to become active?

Inactive forms converted to active, beta-carotene → vitamin A,-        Require enzymes or metabolic steps to activate.

What is a co-enzyme’s role?

Molecules that assist enzymes in metabolic reactions

Which vitamins are gene regulators

Vitamins A (retinoic acid), D, and some B vitamins affect gene expression by influencing transcription.

Physiological

normal dietary levels.

Pharmacological

higher, medicinal doses that may alter body function

Which vitamin is used in pharmacological doses to treat hypertension and high cholesterol

-        Niacin (Vitamin B3).

vitamin A and D toxicity

liver damage,brith defacts

: hypercalcemia kidneyy damage

Which form of vitamin A works in this process gene regulation

Vitamin A (retinoic acid) i

What is a teratogen? Which vitamin can be a teratogen in high doses?

  Substance causing birth defects. Vitamin A in high doses is a

Primary deficiency

caused by inadequate intake

Secondary deficiency

due to absorption or metabolism issues

Cooperative functions of folate

critical in early fetal development

what is the funtion of b12

maintains nerve cells and helps regenerate folate.

What is intrinsic factor,What is this type of anemia called

a protein produced by cells in the stomach lining

Pernicious Anemia

what is Iron-deficiency anemia and how can it be cured

low intake or blood loss.

c. Treated with supplements and diet changes.

   Folate-deficiency anemia:

low folate intake or absorption issues.

c.      Treated with folic acid supplements.

Vitamin B12-deficiency anemia:

a.     Cause: lack of intrinsic factor or low intake (especially in vegans).

c.      Treated with B12 supplements or injections.

what can cause anemia non-nutrient

Chronic disease, genetic disorders (e.g., sickle cell), blood loss, infections, or kidney disease (due to low erythropoietin).

What is pernicious anemia?

B12 deficiency causes neurological symptoms; folate does not.-        Intrinsic factor antibody tests can indicate absorption problems.

In general what is the function of antioxidants Which vitamins provide this function? Where do they locate in the body?

-        Neutralize free radicals, protecting cells from oxidative damage

-        Vitamin E: in cell membranes (fat-rich areas).

-        Vitamin C: in watery parts of cells and blood.

1.     What are free radicals (define them, don't just tell me where they are found)? What can increase the presence of free radicals?

-        Unstable molecules with unpaired electrons that can damage DNA, proteins, and cell membranes.

-        Produced naturally through metabolism or increased by smoking, pollution, UV light.

What groups of people are susceptible to nutrient deficiencies

Elderly (poor absorption), vegans (B12, iron), pregnant women (folate, iron), alcoholics (B vitamins), low-income groups (limited food variety).

What are recommendations regarding vitamins from foods vs. supplements,What are the effects on vitamin content of foods through cooking/freezing/canning

-        Cooking in water → vitamin leaching.

-        Heat and light → breakdown of sensitive vitamins.

What do osteoclasts each do?

break down bone.

What is cell differentiation?

the process where an immature cell develops into a specialized cell type

what do osteoblasts

build bone,